abstract: A basic theory and terminology that comprehensively applies to all different types of contacts in silicon solar cells has, thus far, been elusive. While the well established diode model has been applied to many of the complex contacts, the theory is not adequate to intuitively describe the characteristics of novel contacts. This thesis shows that the many desirable characteristics of contacts that are discussed in the literature—carrier selectivity, passivation, and low majority carrier conductance, key among them—originate from the resistance to electrons and holes in the contact. These principles are applied to describe a few popular contact technologies in order to pave the path to envisioning novel contacts. Metrics for contact performance is introduced to quantify each of the above characteristics using the two carrier resistances. The the validity of the proposed metrics is explored using extensive PC-1D simulations. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Electrical Engineering 2016

abstract: This is a two-part thesis assessing the long-term reliability of photovoltaic modules. Part 1: Manufacturing dependent reliability - Adapting FMECA for quality control in PV module manufacturing This part is aimed at introducing a statistical tool in quality assessments in PV module manufacturing. Developed jointly by ASU-PRL and Clean Energy Associates, this work adapts the Failure Mode Effect and Criticality Analysis (FMECA, IEC 60812) to quantify the impact of failure modes observed at the time of manufacturing. The method was developed through analysis of nearly 9000 modules at the pre-shipment evaluation stage in module manufacturing facilities across south east Asia. Numerous projects were analyzed to generate RPN (Risk Priority Number) scores for projects. In this manner, it was possibly to quantitatively assess the risk being carried the project at the time of shipment of modules. The objective of this work was to develop a benchmarking system that would allow for accurate quantitative estimations of risk mitigation and project bankability. Part 2: Climate dependent reliability - Activation energy determination for climate specific degradation modes This work attempts to model the parameter (Isc or Rs) degradation rate of modules as a function of the climatic parameters (i.e. temperature, relative humidity and ultraviolet radiation) at the site. The objective of this work was to look beyond the power degradation rate and model based on the performance parameter directly affected by the degradation mode under investigation (encapsulant browning or IMS degradation of solder bonds). Different physical models were tested and validated through comparing the activation energy obtained for each degradation mode. It was concluded that, for the degradation of the solder bonds within the module, the Pecks equation (function of temperature and relative humidity) modelled with Rs increase was the best fit; the activation energy ranging from 0.4 – 0.7 eV based on the climate type. For encapsulant browning, the Modified Arrhenius equation (function of temperature and UV) seemed to be the best fit presently, yielding an activation energy of 0.3 eV. The work was concluded by suggesting possible modifications to the models based on degradation pathways unaccounted for in the present work. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Chemical Engineering 2017

abstract: Distributed Renewable energy generators are now contributing a significant amount of energy into the energy grid. Consequently, reliability adequacy of such energy generators will depend on making accurate forecasts of energy produced by them. Power outputs of Solar PV systems depend on the stochastic variation of environmental factors (solar irradiance, ambient temperature & wind speed) and random mechanical failures/repairs. Monte Carlo Simulation which is typically used to model such problems becomes too computationally intensive leading to simplifying state-space assumptions. Multi-state models for power system reliability offer a higher flexibility in providing a description of system state evolution and an accurate representation of probability. In this study, Universal Generating Functions (UGF) were used to solve such combinatorial problems. 8 grid connected Solar PV systems were analyzed with a combined capacity of about 5MW located in a hot-dry climate (Arizona) and accuracy of 98% was achieved when validated with real-time data. An analytics framework is provided to grid operators and utilities to effectively forecast energy produced by distributed energy assets and in turn, develop strategies for effective Demand Response in times of increased share of renewable distributed energy assets in the grid. Second part of this thesis extends the environmental modelling approach to develop an aging test to be run in conjunction with an accelerated test of Solar PV modules. Accelerated Lifetime Testing procedures in the industry are used to determine the dominant failure modes which the product undergoes in the field, as well as predict the lifetime of the product. UV stressor is one of the ten stressors which a PV module undergoes in the field. UV exposure causes browning of modules leading to drop in Short Circuit Current. This thesis presents an environmental modelling approach for the hot-dry climate and extends it to develop an aging test methodology. This along with the accelerated tests would help achieve the goal of correlating field failures with accelerated tests and obtain acceleration factor. This knowledge would help predict PV module degradation in the field within 30% of the actual value and help in knowing the PV module lifetime accurately. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Industrial Engineering 2017

abstract: Polycrystalline CdS/CdTe solar cells continue to dominate the thin-film photovoltaics industry with an achieved record efficiency of over 22% demonstrated by First Solar, yet monocrystalline CdTe devices have received considerably less attention over the years. Monocrystalline CdTe double-heterostructure solar cells show great promise with respect to addressing the problem of low Voc with the passing of the 1 V benchmark. Rapid progress has been made in driving the efficiency in these devices ever closer to the record presently held by polycrystalline thin-films. This achievement is primarily due to the utilization of a remote p-n heterojunction in which the heavily doped contact materials, which are so problematic in terms of increasing non-radiative recombination inside the absorber, are moved outside of the CdTe double heterostructure with two MgyCd1-yTe barrier layers to provide confinement and passivation at the CdTe surfaces. Using this design, the pursuit and demonstration of efficiencies beyond 20% in CdTe solar cells is reported through the study and optimization of the structure barriers, contacts layers, and optical design. Further development of a wider bandgap MgxCd1-xTe solar cell based on the same design is included with the intention of applying this knowledge to the development of a tandem solar cell constructed on a silicon subcell. The exploration of different hole-contact materials—ZnTe, CuZnS, and a-Si:H—and their optimization is presented throughout the work. Devices utilizing a-Si:H hole contacts exhibit open-circuit voltages of up to 1.11 V, a maximum total-area efficiency of 18.5% measured under AM1.5G, and an active-area efficiency of 20.3% for CdTe absorber based devices. The achievement of voltages beyond 1.1V while still maintaining relatively high fill factors with no rollover, either before or after open-circuit, is a promising indicator that this approach can result in devices surpassing the 22% record set by polycrystalline designs. MgxCd1-xTe absorber based devices have been demonstrated with open-circuit voltages of up to 1.176 V and a maximum active-area efficiency of 11.2%. A discussion of the various loss mechanisms present within these devices, both optical and electrical, concludes with the presentation of a series of potential design changes meant to address these issues. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Electrical Engineering 2017

This thesis work aimed to develop solar Photovoltaic (PV) powered smart street post. The post was set to serve on highways for wild animals’ detection and warn vehicles of possible crossings. The main aim was to design reliable standalone PV system via PVSyst software and experimenting four different PV technologies including a bifacial module under. Another aim was to select and develop the hardware and software terms of the smart street pot. Radar sensor and analog to digital (A/D) data acquisition (DAQ) card were set to be used for the motion detection. RF wireless communication module was used for communicating with nearby posts to send data and trigger warning light emitting diodes (LED) sign. A Raspberry Pi microcontroller was programmed to control the operation of the street post through processing the signal from radar sensor and communicating with nearby posts. The PV system design included generation of street post’s daily profile, sizing and selection of the components of the system including the module, battery, charge controller and power stage circuit. The later was designed to provide suitable voltage level and interface for the loads connected. PVSyst model was built and set to be located in Ulm, Germany. The design parameters were set, and different set of orientations were tested for each module. The simulation results showed bifacial module delivered a reliable PV system in case of south and south-east orientation and achieved better performance in other orientations in comparison to the other PV modules implemented. Due to limitations in PVSyst software the results provided had an overall uncertainty of 5%. The microcontroller was able to process the data from the radar sensor and DAQ card and perform fast Fourier transform (FFT). However, further processing of motion detection was complex to be included in the thesis work. The radar sensor and DAQ card provided signals with uncertainty of ± 3.4 mV. The RF wireless communication module transmitted signal over various ranges up to 150 m with time delay of 500 ms.

Le confinement quantique dans le silicium, sous forme de boîtes quantiques de silicium de diamètre 5 nm, permet de contrôler le bandgap et donc l'émission de lumière. Cette ingénierie du bandgap des nanocristaux de silicium est utile pour les applications photovoltaïques avancées et présente l'avantage de conserver la compatibilité avec les technologies silicium existantes. Ces boîtes quantiques peuvent aider à réduire les pertes par thermalisation dans une cellule solaire homo-jonction. Ce travail se concentre sur la fabrication à grande échelle des nanocristaux de silicium dans SiO2 en utilisant le Dépôt Chimique en Phase Vapeur assisté par Plasma (PECVD), suivi d'un recuit à haute température. Des monocouches sont comparées avec des multicouches pour les propriétés morphologiques, électriques et optiques et des dispositifs avec ces différents couches sont comparés. Dans le cas d'une structure monocouche, l'épaisseur de la couche contrôle l'organisation des nanocristaux et permet de mettre en évidence l'amélioration de la conductivité électrique, avec cependant une réponse optique faible. Les multicouches montrent un bandgap du Si augmentée et controlee, avec une meilleure absorption dans la gamme bleu-vert visible, accompagnée d'une conductivité électrique faible. L'amélioration de ces propriétés optiques est un signe prometteur pour une potentielle intégration photovoltaïque. / Quantum confined silicon, in the form of silicon quantum dots of diameters 5 nm or less, has the property of bandgap control and light emission. This bandgap engineering gives silicon quantum dots applications in novel photovoltaic devices, while maintaining compatibility with existing silicon technologies. These dots can help reduce lattice thermalisation losses in a single-junction solar cell. This work focusses on the large scale fabrication of silicon quantum dots in SiO2 using Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition (PECVD), followed by high-temperature annealing. Thick single layers are compared with multilayers for morphological, electrical and optical properties. Devices with these layers are compared with different electrode materials. Film thickness dependent organization of dots is observed in thick single layer structures which demonstrate improved electrical conductivity, but poor optical response. Multilayer films demonstrate augmented and controlled Si bandgaps and improved absorption in the blue-green visible range, accompanied by poor electrical conductivity. The improved optical properties are a promising sign for any potential photovoltaic integration.

Ce travail présente la caractérisation des propriétés d'absorption de lumière par des nanofils uniques (NF) de silicium en utilisant la spectroscopie de photocourant, ainsi qu'une étude préliminaire des processus d'incorporation des dopants et de réalisation de jonction dans les NFs. Tout d'abord, nous commençons par décrire les méthodes de croissance utilisées pour synthétiser des NFs actifs pour la génération de photocourant, avec l'utilisation du chlorure d'hydrogène dans les procédés classiques de croissance CVD catalysée or de fils dopés. Cette méthode offre des structures très faiblement coniques, élargit les températures de procédé, permettant en particulier d'incorporer très efficacement le bore, avec des densités d'accepteurs ionisés allant jusqu'à 1.8E19 cm-3, tout en inhibant la diffusion d'or depuis le catalyseur. L'attention est ensuite portée à la fabrication de jonctions, l'étude de ses caractéristiques électriques, ainsi que sur l'influence de paramètres morphologiques (rayon, position axiale) du fil sur sa résistivité apparente. Dans une seconde partie, nous étudions la réponse en photocourant d'un jeu de NFs actifs de différents diamètres et corrélons nos résultats à un traitement analytique de l'absorption des photons à l'échelle du nanoobjet dans le cadre de la théorie de Mie adaptée au cas cylindrique. L'accord expérience-théorie est très bon pour les deux polarisations (TE-TM). Des résonances dans le spectre d'absorption sont mises en évidence, correspondant à l'excitation de modes propres du fil, et associées à des sections efficaces d'absorption pouvant être supérieures à l'unité. Dans une dernière partie, nous adaptons la stratégie de dépôt antireflet utilisée dans les cellules solaires pour améliorer le couplage de la lumière incidente aux NFs. Pour cela, des dépôts de SiO2 et Si3N4 sont réalisés sur des NFs via la technique de PECVD, nous fournissant par là-même un jeu de structures pourvues d'un dépôt de diélectrique à haute conformité. Se basant sur les spectres d'absorption ainsi acquis, nous obtenons les gains relatifs d'absorption induits par le dépôt de diélectrique et les comparons aux calculs analytiques développés spécifiquement pour obtenir l'absorption dans le cœur seulement du cylindre coaxial, ceci nous permettant également d'estimer la partie du rayonnement incident absorbé dans la coquille diélectrique. / In this work we present the characterization of the light absorption properties of single silicon NWs (NW) using photocurrent spectroscopy along with the preliminary work done at the wire scale to characterize the dopant incorporation and the fabrication of junctions. First, we start with a description of the growth methods used to synthesize active NW's for photocurrent generation, with results obtained on the use of hydrogen chloride in the CVD VLS growth of doped NWs. This method offers highly straight structures, widened process temperatures allowing in particular very efficient boron incorporation—ionized acceptors densities up to 1.8E19 cm-3—and inhibited gold diffusion, thereby greatly reducing elemental contamination from the catalyst. Focus is made on the junction formation, the study of its electrical characteristics and the influence of morphological parameters—radius, axial position—to obtain the desired doping properties. In a second part, we present the photocurrent response of a set of different diameter active Si NWs and correlate our results with an analytical treatment of the photon absorption at the nanoscale using the Lorentz Mie theory adapted to the cylindrical geometry under study. Very good agreement is found between experiment and theory for both polarization spectra (TE-TM). Absorption resonances are resolved, corresponding to leak resonant modes, and can display absorption efficiencies higher than one, making downscaling an efficient tool to increase energy harvesting capabilities. In a last part, we adapt the antireflective coating strategy used in solar cells to improve the coupling of the incoming light to Si NWs. For this, SiO2 and Si3N4 films are deposited on NWs using PECVD, providing a set of structures coated with a high level of conformity. Based on the new set of spectra we obtain the relative gain curves and compare them with analytical calculations specifically derived for getting the absorption in the core of coaxial nanocylinders only, which allows estimating the magnitude of the absorbed energy in the dielectric shell.

Submitted by Thais Santos Castro (castro-thais@uol.com.br) on 2018-04-26T13:21:58Z No. of bitstreams: 1 THAIS SANTOS CASTRO.pdf: 3920352 bytes, checksum: 8fa2296933330e462938c1902f71c78c (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Pamella Benevides Gonçalves null (pamella@feg.unesp.br) on 2018-04-26T18:26:19Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 castro_ts_dr_guara.pdf: 3671282 bytes, checksum: ce9b5ca08f302fee05a9461f3e191855 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-04-26T18:26:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 castro_ts_dr_guara.pdf: 3671282 bytes, checksum: ce9b5ca08f302fee05a9461f3e191855 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-03-02 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / A preocupação com o meio ambiente e com a qualidade do ar tem sido o foco de vários trabalhos nos meios acadêmico e governamental, sabendo-se que e um dos grandes fatores dessa degradação é o meio de transporte. O poder aquisitivo do cidadão brasileiro unido à facilidade da compra de novos carros está crescendo a cada ano, com isso o número de veículos por habitante também tem aumentado; nesse sentido, é essencial que novas tecnologias mais eficientes e com melhor rendimento sejam estudadas e analisadas. Partindo deste conceito, nota-se que os carros elétricos são uma alternativa inteligente para diminuir a degradação provocada pelos combustíveis fósseis. A produção de energia elétrica por meio de fontes renováveis tais como fotovoltaica, biogás, etc., aliada ao baixo custo de manutenção e à longa vida útil, está se tornando uma alternativa atrativa. Neste trabalho são aplicadas metodologias para dimensionamento e análise do custo da geração de energia elétrica através de fontes renováveis: fotovoltaicas e biogás. Considera-se também o custo operacional do carro elétrico sendo abastecido com a eletricidade fornecida por essas fontes e pela energia da concessionária rede, comparado ao custo operacional de um carro de motor de combustão interna. Também é determinado o CO2eq emitido pela utilização da usina fotovoltaica, usina a biogás, energia da rede e pela gasolina e etanol utilizado no carro de MCI. Foi ainda calculado o passivo ambiental associado a cada tipo de tecnologia de geração de eletricidade renovável. Conclui-se que o retorno de investimento para a energia gerada pelo biogás é menor do que para a energia fotovoltaica, porém as duas opções apresentam viabilidade econômica, considerando ainda que a agressão ao meio ambiente é baixa para ambas as tecnologias. Tais fatores propiciam uma alternativa de estudo eficaz afim de customizar o sistema e diminuir o custo de geração de eletricidade e gerar alternativas de redução de CO2eq. / The concern about the environment and the quality of the air has been the focus of several studies in both academic and government fields, showing that one of the main responsible ones for the degradation of the environment is transportation. The acquisition power of Brazilian people coupled with the ease of buying new vehicles is growing every year; as a result, the rate of vehicles per inhabitant has also increased; in this sense, it is of essence that new and more efficient technologies be studied and analyzed. Starting from this concept, electric vehicles are a smart alternative to reduce the degradation caused by fossil fuels. The production of electricity from renewable sources such as photovoltaic, biogas, etc., combined with the fact that those systems have low maintenance costs and long service life is becoming an attractive alternative. In this study, methodologies are applied to calculate and analyze the costs of electricity generation by renewable sources: solar and biomass energy. It is also considered the operating cost of the electric car being fed with the electricity provided by these sources and by grid energy, compared to the operating cost of an internal combustion engine car. The CO2eq emitted by the use of the photovoltaic plant, the biogas plant, the grid energy and the gasoline and ethanol used in the ICE car is also determined. It was also calculated the environmental liabilities associated with each type of renewable electricity generation technology. As a conclusion, this study shows that the return of investment considering the energy generated by biogas systems is lower than the one required to generate photovoltaic energy, but both options present good return of investment, considering also the low level of aggression to the environment. These factors provide an effective option for a study aiming to customize the system and to reduce the electricity generation costs, decreasing CO2 equivalent levels

abstract: The objective of this thesis is to achieve a detailed understanding of the loss mechanisms in SHJ solar cells. The working principles of these cells and what affects the cell operation, e.g. the IV characteristics at the maximum power point (MPP) and the correspondingly ll factor (FF) are investigated. Dierent loss sources are analyzed separately, and the weight of each in the total loss at the MPP are evaluated. The total series resistance is measured and then compared with the value obtained through summation over each of its components. In other words, series resistance losses due to recombination, vertical and lateral carrier transport, metalization, etc, are individually evaluated, and then by adding all these components together, the total loss is calculated. The concept of ll factor and its direct dependence on the loss mechanisms at the MPP of the device is explained, and its sensitivity to nearly every processing step of the cell fabrication is investigated. This analysis provides a focus lens to identify the main source of losses in SHJ solar cells and pave the path for further improvements in cell efficiency. In this thesis, we provide a detailed understanding of the FF concept; we explain how it can be directly measured; how it can be calculated and what expressions can better approximate its value and under what operating conditions. The relation between FF and cell operating condition at the MPP is investigated. We separately analyzed the main FF sources of losses including recombination, sheet resistance, contact resistance and metalization. We study FF loss due to recombination and its separate components which include the Augur, radiative and SRH recombination is investigated. We study FF loss due to contact resistance and its separate components which include the contact resistance of dierent interfaces, e.g. between the intrinsic and doped a-Si layers, TCO and a-Si layers. We also study FF loss due to lateral transport and its components that including the TCO sheet resistance, the nger and the busbars resistances. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Electrical Engineering 2018

abstract: Zinc oxide (ZnO) has attracted much interest during last decades as a functional material. Furthermore, ZnO is a potential material for transparent conducting oxide material competing with indium tin oxide (ITO), graphene, and carbon nanotube film. It has been known as a conductive material when doped with elements such as indium, gallium and aluminum. The solubility of those dopant elements in ZnO is still debatable; but, it is necessary to find alternative conducting materials when their form is film or nanostructure for display devices. This is a consequence of the ever increasing price of indium. In addition, a new generation solar cell (nanostructured or hybrid photovoltaics) requires compatible materials which are capable of free standing on substrates without seed or buffer layers and have the ability introduce electrons or holes pathway without blocking towards electrodes. The nanostructures for solar cells using inorganic materials such as silicon (Si), titanium oxide (TiO2), and ZnO have been an interesting topic for research in solar cell community in order to overcome the limitation of efficiency for organic solar cells. This dissertation is a study of the rational solution-based synthesis of 1-dimentional ZnO nanomaterial and its solar cell applications. These results have implications in cost effective and uniform nanomanufacturing for the next generation solar cells application by controlling growth condition and by doping transition metal element in solution. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Materials Science and Engineering 2012