Animal hosts provide associated microorganisms with suitable ecological niches in their intestines. Microbes help their hosts to digest food, protect against pathogens, and influence the host’s metabolisms. Compositional variation of gut microbial communities is common among hosts, and may affect the health status of hosts. Diet and genetic factors are well known to influence the assembly of gut microbial communities. This thesis focuses on disentangling the contributions of factors including host genetics (sex), diet, environment, and other ecological processes to the assembly of gut microbial communities in freshwater fish. The association between gut microbial communities and fish condition is also evaluated in this thesis. Applying metacommunity theory, we found environmental factors including fish habitat, fish species, their diet, dispersal factors including microbes from fish diet, and ecological drift contributed to the assembly of fish gut microbial communities. The proportion of their contribution varied between fish species, where ecological drift explained more in perch than in roach. Under natural conditions fish populations face the risk of predation, which can induce competition and impose predation stress within prey individuals. This can therefore lead to changes in their diet qualities and quantities. In this thesis, it was shown that fish diet in terms of qualities and quantities significantly influenced the overall gut microbial composition, and this influence was dependent on fish sex, a host genetic factor. Predation stress was also suggested to significantly decrease the species richness. Furthermore, when fish were experiencing a diet shift, we showed that different bacterial phyla from novel food had different colonization success in the intestine, and this colonization success was positively influenced by predation stress. Fish condition was suggested in this thesis to be affected by gut microbial composition, especially by the contributions of the bacterial phyla Tenericutes and Actinobacteria.

Many amphibian populations are rapidly disappearing throughout the world. An important issue for ecologists is why some amphibian species are more susceptible to decline than others. Here I present five experiments that compare the performance of an endangered (Rana sevosa) and a common (Rana sphenocephala) frog in changing habitats, to determine why these two species differ in their persistence. I include additional studies investigating the habitat requirements and behavior of R. sevosa. I found that habitat change in the form of canopy closure over breeding ponds negatively affects both species, making them smaller as tadpoles and at metamorphosis. The magnitude of size differences was greater for R. sevosa and this species was less likely to survive in closed canopy ponds. Larval survival was not affected in R. sphenocephala and this is likely a key reason for the persistence of this species in habitats where R. sevosa has been extirpated. The introduction of fish to breeding ponds would also differentially affect the two species. R. sevosa did not display behavioral defenses to the threat of fish predation while R. sphenocephala did. R. sevosa displayed a preference for certain characteristics in its habitat including open canopy ponds, grassy terrestrial habitats and an abundance of burrows. An association with the chemical cues of burrow making organisms suggests that these organisms may be important for R. sevosa. Therefore, specialized habitat requirements and behaviors which may be contributing to its decline. I found some evidence of asymmetric competition in the larval stage with R. sevosa negatively affecting R. sphenocephala. It does not appear that larval competition with R. sphenocephala has contributed to the decline of R. sevosa. The primary difference between the two species was in responses to habitat change. R. sevosa appears to be rigid in its habitat requirements and behavior and its inability to respond and adapt to change is a key component of its rarity. By contrast R. sphenocephala showed an ability to cope with habitat changes. Conservation of R. sevosa will require suitable management of the aquatic and terrestrial habitats, primarily through the instigation of an appropriate fire regime.

Seabirds commonly nest colonially on cliffs or inaccessible islands, so that oceanic effects on the quality or quantity of prey fed to chicks more often determine nest success than does terrestrial predation. However, when predators can access nests, impacts can be dramatic. In Kittlitz’s murrelet (KIMU), a rare and recently declining seabird, nests are widely dispersed in poorly accessible areas, growth rates are exceptionally high, and nestling periods are very short. This unique strategy may offset the vulnerability of their ground nests to predators but demands adequate deliveries of high-energy prey. We investigated whether variations in energy content of prey fed to chicks could alter growth rates and resulting duration of exposure to predators, and whether extending predator exposure had important effects on nest success. From 2009‒2016, we measured fish length with cameras, modeled prey energy content from chick energy needs, and measured chick growth rate and nest survival. We monitored an average 17 nests/year (139 total), of which 49% were depredated (almost all by red fox) and 25% survived to fledging. Prey were mainly Pacific sand lance (80%) and capelin (19%), with capelin having 2.3× higher energy per unit length. In a year of slow growth, sand lance energy density needed to increase by 31% from 4.29 to 5.64 kJ/g (within published values), or the proportion of capelin in the diet needed to increase from 5.6% to 27.2%, to achieve maximum chick growth. Adults could supply the energy required for maximum growth by delivering only 1.9 capelin/day versus 5.5 sand lance. Slow growth increased time to fledging by 5 days. This extended exposure to predation could decrease overall nest survival from 14.2% to 13.1%, a relative decrease of 7.7%. With reported breeding propensity of KIMU averaging only 20% and sometimes much lower (range 5 to 45%), even small effects on nest success may be consequential. Although direct predation was the main limitation to nest success, effects of ocean conditions on prey quantity and quality can have overriding effects in some years, and apparently small but substantive indirect effects in other years by mediating exposure to predation. Continued climate warming that adversely affects availability of high-energy fish and allows range expansion of terrestrial predators may have disproportionate effects on species such as KIMU with accessible nests and demands for energy-rich prey.

Este trabalho está dividido em dois capítulos. O primeiro capítulo aborda a ocorrência de competição entre diferentes combinações de espécies (Ceriodaphnia richardi, Diaphanosoma birgei e Daphnia gessneri) coexistentes no Lago Monte Alegre - LMA (Ribeirão Preto SP), e a influência desta interação sobre a história de vida desses organismos. Quatro experimentos de competição foram realizados. No experimento 1, competição entre C. richardi e D. gessneri foi testada utilizando séston da zona limnética como alimento; no experimento 2, séston da zona litorânea foi utilizado para alimentar C. richardi e D. birgei; no experimento 3, a clorofícea Desmodesmus spinosus, em concentração de 0,25 mg C. L-1, foi utilizada como alimento para avaliar competição entre D. birgei e D. gessneri; e no experimento 4 a ocorrência de competição foi avaliada entre C. richardi, D. gessneri e D. birgei, em diferentes combinações, utilizando 0,15 mg C. L-1 da mesma alga. Os resultados do Experimento 1 mostraram que não houve competição quando as espécies compartilharam o séston limnético. Contudo, melhor desempenho reprodutivo foi observado na espécie de menor tamanho, C. richardi. Da mesma forma, séston litorâneo não levou à competição entre os cladóceros no experimento 2. Ao contrário, as espécies parecem ter se beneficiado da presença uma da outra, quando foi observado aumento de alguns valores nos parâmetros da tabela de vida, principalmente com relação a C. richardi. No experimento 3, D. gessneri não teve suas taxas reprodutivas afetadas pela presença de D. birgei, apenas a sobrevivência, enquanto a segunda espécie teve a maior parte de suas taxas reprodutivas afetadas por Daphnia, mas não a sobrevivência. No entanto, D. birgei pareceu ser mais eficiente em todos os parâmetros, de sobrevivência e reprodução. No Experimento 4, a quantidade de alimento afetou a reprodução de C. richardi e D. gessneri e elas não reproduziram, apenas D. birgei, apesar de ter suas taxas reprodutivas afetadas por ambas. Os resultados dos experimentos de competição indicam que o séston do LMA é capaz de promover a coexistência das espécies e que competição poderia ocorrer se o alimento alcançasse concentrações relativamente baixas como já registrado em alguns períodos do ano. No entanto, as baixas densidades das espécies no lago, especialmente de D. gessneri e D. birgei, pode reduzir as chances de ocorrência de competição, sugerindo que a coexistência no lago pode ser mediada por outros fatores, como a predação. No segundo capítulo, experimentos foram realizados para testar a predação e preferência alimentar dos predadores invertebrados, as larvas de estádio IV de Chaoborus brasiliensis (Experimentos 1 a 3) e o ácaro aquático, Krendowskia sp. (Experimento 4). As presas utilizadas foram: neonatos e adultos de C. richardi e D. gessneri (exp. 1), neonatos e adultos de D. gessneri e D. birgei (exp. 2), neonatos e adultos de C. richardi e D. birgei (exp. 3) e C. richardi e D. gessneri (exp. 4), todos em diferentes combinações. No experimento 1, predação sobre ambos, C. richardi e D. gessneri, foi confirmada, quando também foi observada notável preferência alimentar do predador por jovens de D. gessneri a jovens e adultos de C. richardi. A preferência foi revertida quando adultos de D. gessneri foram pareados com adultos de C. richardi. Chaoborus predou neonatos de D. gessneri e D. birgei e somente adultos da segunda (exp. 2), e todos os tamanhos de C. richardi e D. birgei, com preferência pela segunda espécie (exp. 3). O ácaro aquático não predou C. richardi, somente jovens e adultos de D. gessneri (exp. 4). Ainda neste capítulo, dois outros experimentos foram realizados para testar fatores combinados (competição + predação) utilizando o método de tabela vida em cultivos com e sem cairomônio (substância excretada pelo predador), sob concentração de alimento de 0,25 mg C. L-1. Os cladóceros selecionados para os experimentos foram C. richardi e D. gessneri (Experimento 5), e C. richardi e D. birgei (Experimento 6). A presença da substância afetou a história de vida de C. richardi e D. gessneri, mas não a de D. birgei. D. gessneri foi a espécie mais prejudicada pelo fator combinado (competição + predação), enquanto D. birgei teve sua reprodução negativamente afetada somente pela presença de D. gessneri. Os resultados dos experimentos envolvendo predação indicam que predadores invertebrados no LMA têm preferências por umas espécies de presas em relação a outras, e que a seleção é dependente do tamanho (neonatos e adultos). Influência indireta da predação, por meio da liberação de cairomônios, pode afetar a história de vida de diferentes espécies, e influenciar os resultados de competição. / This work is divided into two chapters. The first chapter discusses the occurrence of competition between different combinations of species (Ceriodaphnia richardi, Diaphanosoma birgei and Daphnia gessneri) coexisting in Lake Monte Alegre - LMA (Ribeirão Preto - SP), and the influence of this interaction on the life history of these organisms. Four competition experiments were performed. In experiment 1, competition between C. richardi and D. gessneri was tested using seston from the limnetic zone as food; in experiment 2, seston of the littoral zone was used to feed C. richardi and D. birgei; in experiment 3, the Chlorophyceae Desmodesmus spinosus, at a concentration of 0.25 mg C. L-1, was used as food to evaluate competition between D. birgei and D. gessneri; and in experiment 4, competition was evaluated between different combinations of C. richardi, D. gessneri and D. birgei, using 0.15 mg C. L-1 of the same algae. The results of Experiment 1 showed that there was no competition when species shared the seston of the limnetic zone. However, better reproductive performance was observed in the smaller sized species, C. richardi. Similarly, the seston of the littoral zone did not lead to competition among the cladocerans in experiment 2. In contrast, species seem to have benefited from the presence of each other, when an increase in some values was observed in the parameters of the life table, especially in relation to C. richardi. In experiment 3, D. gessneri did not have its reproductive rates affected by the presence of D. birgei, only survival, while the second species had most of its reproductive rates affected by Daphnia, but not survival. However, D. birgei appeared to be more efficient in all parameters of survival and reproduction. In Experiment 4, the amount of food affected the reproduction of C. richardi and D. gessneri and they did not reproduce, only D. birgei, despite having their reproductive rates affected by both. The results of the competition experiments indicate that the seston of LMA can promote the coexistence of the species, and that competition could occur if the food decreased considerably, as already registered in some periods of the year. However, the low densities of species in the lake, especially D. gessneri and D. birgei, may reduce the chances of occurring competition, suggesting that coexistence in the lake may be mediated by other factors, such as predation. In the second chapter, experiments were performed to test the predation and feeding preference of the invertebrate predators, stage IV of the larvae of Chaoborus brasiliensis (Experiments 1 to 3) and the aquatic mite, Krendowskia sp. (Experiment 4). The prey used were: neonates and adults of C. richardi and D. gessneri (exp. 1), neonates and adults of D. gessneri and D. birgei (exp. 2), neonates and adults of C. richardi and D. birgei (Exp 3) and of C. richardi and D. gessneri (Exp 4), all in different combinations. In experiment 1, predation on both, C. richardi and D. gessneri, was confirmed, when there was also a remarkable dietary preference of predators by neonates of D. gessneri to neonates and adults of C. richardi. The preference was reversed when adults of D. gessneri were paired with C. richardis adults. Chaoborus preyed on neonates of D. gessneri and D. birgei, and only adults of the second (exp 2), and all stages of C. richardi and D. birgei, with preference by second species (exp 3). The aquatic mite did not prey on C. richardi, only neonates and adults of D. gessneri (exp 4). Also, in this chapter, two other experiments were performed to test combined factors (competition + predation) using the life-time method in cultures with and without kairomone (substance excreted by the predator), under food concentration of 0.25 mg C. L- 1. Cladocerans selected for the experiments were C. richardi and D. gessneri (Experiment 5), and C. richardi and D. birgei (Experiment 6). The presence of the substance affected the life history of C. richardi and D. gessneri, but not that of D. birgei. D. gessneri was the species most affected by the combined factor (competition + predation), while D. birgei had its reproduction negatively affected only by the presence of D. gessneri. The results of experiments involving predation indicate that invertebrate predators in LMA have preferences for some prey species in relation to others, and that selection is size dependent of the prey (neonates and adults). Indirect influence of predation, through the release of kairomones, can affect the life history of different species, and influence the results of competition.

A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree: Master of Science In School of Animal, Plants and Environmental Sciences, University of Witwatersrand Johannesburg 2015 / This study aimed to determine the role and relative importance of predator avoidance and nutrition as processes influencing herbivore utilisation of burnt areas, at Satara, Kruger National Park by using variation in fire size and fire season. The driving factors investigated included forage quality, forage quantity, vegetation structure and predation risk. The effect of fire size and season on the landscape was tested by recording grass height, greenness, grass nutrient sampling and visibility. Results showed that fire size and season had a significant impact on the physical environment by decreasing grass/forage quantity post-fire but increasing grass/forage quality. Over time the plots returned to near pre-fire conditions, with forage quantity increasing (grass height and biomass) and forage quality decreasing (nitrogen availability). Visibility increased immediately post-fire, more significantly in regards to herbivores with their heads in a “head-down/grazing” position than in a “head raised/vigilant” position. As with forage quantity and quality, visibility returned to near pre-fire conditions at the end of the study sampling period. The response of animals to these changes in the environment was recorded through dung counts, camera traps and behavioural observations. I found that there was increased use of burnt plots post-fire through comparing herbivore presence on plots burned in different sizes and seasons, day/night utilisation of plots, and using behaviour data I could determine to what extent forage and predation risk were driving the use of burnt areas. I focused on three herbivore species (Aepyceros melampus, Connochaetes taurinus and Equus quagga) which varied in terms of body size digestive systems, forage type, and social behaviour. As expected, I found that predation risk did appear to be more important in driving the behaviour of the smaller-bodied herbivores but both nutrient requirements and susceptibility to predation were shown to play a role in explaining the use of burnt areas for all three herbivore species. Variation between plots in environmental factors such as tree density, forb percentage and distance to water, were found to be not significant and thus did not confound our results

La prédation – pillages, prises de captifs et prélèvements tributaires – est un aspect important de la pratique guerrière dans les sociétés du haut Moyen Âge. Elle met en circulation de grandes quantités de richesses qui viennent alimenter les trésors des rois et des potentes. Cette étude vise à en dégager le rôle dans le fonctionnement et la reproduction des pouvoirs, dans le monde franc du VIe au Xe siècle.Les enjeux sont nombreux. L'appropriation de biens par la guerre est déterminante dans la capacité des grands à mobiliser des combattants, qui bénéficient d'une part de ces richesses. En outre, elle leur permet d'accumuler des biens de prestige essentiels dans la praxis aristocratique : objets précieux, armes, chevaux… Ces biens alimentent les échanges matériels entre les élites. Ils peuvent être distribués aux fidèles ou donnés à d'autres princes. La prédation est également facteur de gloire. Le butin fait parfois l'objet de pratiques ostentatoires illustrant la victoire des chefs de guerre.Si elle est facteur de cohésion, la prédation est aussi au centre de concurrences. La royauté franque impose une domination tributaire aux gentes voisines, ce qui apparaît aussi bien comme un moyen de stabiliser l'espace frontalier que d'institutionnaliser à son profit exclusif l'appropriation prédatrice. Les grands en charge des espaces frontaliers tendent au contraire à multiplier les confrontations guerrières afin d'en retirer les bénéfices. Parallèlement, l'expansion franque se traduit par une forte compétition entre les acteurs pour le contrôle des ressources foncières. Cette étude montre ainsi comment la question de la prédation éclaire sous un angle nouveau le rapport entre élites et richesse dans le monde franc. / Predation – looting, taking of captives, pressing of tributes – is an important aspect of early medieval warrior activity. Large amounts of wealth circulate and supply kings' and potentes' treasures. This study aims at exposing the role of related practices in the context of the establishment and functioning of power in sixth to tenth century Frankish society.There is a lot at stake. Appropriation of material goods by war allows the magnates to mobilize warriors, who often receive a share of wealth. What is more, these practices enable the accumulation of prestige goods, that are essential in aristocratic praxis : alongside precious objects, they include weapons, horses… These goods are central to material exchanges within the elite. They can be distributed to the fideles or given to other princes. Predation also represents glory. War leaders willingly exhibit booty to illustrate a recent victory.Being a means to cohesion, predatory practices also are at the center of competition. Frankish kings impose tributary domination to neighboring gentes, which appears at the same time as a means to stabilizing the border area, and as a way to institutionalize to its own account predatory profits. Instead, magnates in charge of border areas tend to seek warlike confrontations in order to reap the benefits. At the same time, the Frankish expansion results in a strong competition between magnates to control land resources. This study thus exposes to what extense these practices shed new light on the link between the elite and wealth in the Frankish world.

The release of the seed eating beetle Sulcobruchus subsuturalis for biological control of Caesalpinia decapetala in South Africa has been ongoing since 2000. This is the first post release evaluation of the efficacy of the agent against the weed. The study assessed the phenology of C. decapetala and S. subsuturalis at two sites and included determining the establishment of the beetle on the target weed at 25 study sites. In addition, the effects of S. subsuturalis on seed densities as well as seed germination and seedling recruitment were examined. Furthermore predation by native ants and attacks by native parasitoids were also examined at two release sites. Mature filled pods were available on the tree from September (spring) to March (summer) when the beetle is expected to be reproductively active. The majority of beetle releases by Working for water took place in summer. However the proportion of beetle infested seeds, which were only recovered inside pods in the tree canopy at study sites, was low (0 to 15.5%). Consequently high seed densities and seedling recruitment were observed in the field. In the laboratory, S. subsuturalis did not lay eggs on buried seeds, however seed infestation levels were generally high. Only 8.3% of the seeds containing adults germinated and 6.3% emerged into seedlings. Of the seeds containing larvae, only 14.6% germinated and 2.1% emerged into seedlings. Thus far, S. subsuturalis has failed to maintain high populations on the target weed, possibly due to egg predation by native ants (Crematogaster species, Pheidole megacephala, Messor natalensis and Tetramorium avium) and attacks by native parasitoids. Egg predation reached 100% within 10 days. Egg parasitism by unknown parasitoids ranged between 80 and 93.1% in Limpopo. The parasitic wasp Dinarmus altifrons was recovered once developing inside a C. decapetala seed infested with S. subsuturalis. Further investigations regarding attacks by indigenous parasitoids on S. subsuturalis are required to determine the extent of this problem. Meanwhile releases of S. subsuturalis against C. decapetala should continue. However release efforts need to be improved by (a) using inundative rather than inoculative releases (b) Releasing every year between September and March (summer) and (c) involving land owners, farmers and nature reserve authorities in release activities. Ultimately an additional agent should be sought for release against C. decapetala as the weed may not be the preferred host for S. subsuturalis.

The sea anemone Bartholomea annulata, is an ecologically important member of Caribbean coral reefs. This anemone serves as symbiotic host to crustacean associates, some of which may control parasite loads by "cleaning" reef fishes. Associates may gain protection from predation by dwelling with anemones. B. annulata was the most abundant anemone documented on three reefs, with 52% host to crustacean symbionts. Of those occupied by multi-species groups, 92% included Alpheus armatus shrimp. A. armatus is an important anemone associate providing protection to the anemone from predators such as Hermodice carunculata, in laboratory and field trials. H. carunculata can completely devour or severely damage prey anemones. Here I show that anemones hosting symbiotic alpheid shrimp are extremely less likely to sustain damage by predators than solitary anemones. The role of protector may be reciprocally provided by anemone and decapod associates. / by Amber McCammon. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2010. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2010. Mode of access: World Wide Web.

The photopollution of beaches caused by artificial light sources can interfere with sea turtle hatchlings' ability to orient properly towards the sea. Exhaustion due to extended disorientation crawling may then increase hatchling mortality. This study evaluated the energetic consequences of long-distance crawls in green and loggerhead sea turtle hatchlings. Turtles crawled for 200 m or 500 m on a treadmill, followed by a 30 minute evaluation of swim performance. Metabolic activity was quantified via measures of blood glucose, blood lactate, and oxygen consumption. No significant changes in metabolism resulted from long-distance crawling activity in loggerheads ; however, loggerheads rested for extended periods of time during the crawl trials, often unresponsive to stimuli. This behavior implies that loggerhead hatchlings would be vulnerable to predation or temperature stress due to exhaustion from extended periods of crawling. Further data is required to draw any significant conclusions about long-term disorientatin crawling in green hatchlings. / by Sean Williams. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2012. / Includes bibliography. / Mode of access: World Wide Web. / System requirements: Adobe Reader.

The first of five chapters describe the study area and study species, including a short description about the impetus for this research. The second chapter describes a unique hydrologic model for application in tidal ecosystems. The second chapter represents new information on the effects of various abiotic and biotic factors on foraging wading birds in this highly dynamic environment. The third chapter identifies important factors affecting the abundance of foraging wading birds in intertidal environments. The fourth chapter presents a study of the foraging habitat preferences of two wading bird species in intertidal environments. The fifth chapter describes a conceptual model of wading bird foraging ecology and a predictive model of foraging habitat in intertidal zones. The conceptual model captures the major drivers and linkages between the abiotic and biotic variables thought to affect wading bird foraging abundance in intertidal habitats. The conceptual model also identifies major knowledge gaps in our understanding of foraging ecology of wading birds in coastal intertidal areas. The predictive model of foraging habitat is meant to be used by resource managers, but its framework may be useful for ecological studies in general. The final and sixth chapter provides a summary of all the major findings. Each chapter has been written so as to be independent of the other chapters. As such, a full background, along with a discussion of the relevance of the chapter's findings is provided for each chapter. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2014. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection