Les techniques d'élaboration de dépôts par voie sèche, plus respectueuses de l'environnement que la plupart des techniques généralement utilisées dans l'industrie, sont actuellement en plein essor. Les techniques de dépôt physique (PVD) en phase vapeur sont aujourd'hui utilisées dans un très grand nombre de domaines industriels, plus particulièrement pour l'amélioration des performances mécaniques et tribologiques des pièces en service soumises à des sollicitations cycliques. Les méthodes de caractérisation mécanique usuelles telles que le scratch test, les essais de frottement pion/plan et la micro/nanoindentation, sont souvent mal adaptées pour prédire à elles seules la durée de vie et les mécanismes d'endommagement en service des dépôts. Afin d'identifier ces mécanismes d'endommagement, un dispositif d'essai d'impacts a été instrumenté, étalonné pour contrôler parfaitement les paramètres d'essai. Ensuite des essais d'impacts répétés à courte ou longue durée ont été réalisés. Lors de ces compagnes d'essais un mécanisme de rupture par flambement et cloquage a été observé et confirmé. Dans le but mieux comprendre les conditions de formation des cloques observées et de pouvoir contrôler leur apparition, une étude expérimentale de l'influence des paramètres du dépôt, du substrat et des conditions de l'impact a été menée. Un modèle numérique par éléments finis de la sollicitation d'impact a également été réalisé et les résultats issus de la simulation ont ensuite été comparés aux résultats expérimentaux obtenus. L'étude a finalement mis en évidence l'existence d'une épaisseur critique de film sur le cloquage, d'une relaxation de contrainte liée au flambement et le rôle important de la microstructure du substrat dans l'amorçage des cloques.

Les tendances récentes en matière de piles à combustible à oxydes solides visent à exploiter la conduction du proton par l'utilisation d'électrolytes de structure de type pérovskite, plus performants à température modérée que les électrolytes conducteurs de l'ion oxyde. Une seconde voie d'amélioration des performances des piles consiste à diminuer l'épaisseur de l'électrolyte aux alentours de 5-10 μm pour minimiser sa résistance. Dans ce contexte, les procédés de dépôt physique trouvent un intérêt majeur. Dans ce travail, nous nous sommes attachés à étudier la faisabilité de couches denses de cérates ou de zirconates de baryum ou de strontium (BaCe1-xYxO3-a, BaZr1-xYxO3-a et SrZr1-xYxO3-a), les électrolytes conducteurs protoniques les plus aptes à répondre aux besoins de l'application, par co-pulvérisation de cibles métalliques en présence d'une atmosphère réactive d'argon-oxygène. Après une description du dispositif expérimental utilisé pour la synthèse des couches, nous étudierons plus particulièrement l'influence des paramètres de dépôt sur la composition des revêtements. Les films bruts d'élaboration étant amorphes, leur cristallisation est étudiée lors de synthèses en température ou au cours de recuits ex-situ. Enfin, les propriétés de conduction ionique des couches de composition visée sont étudiées par spectroscopie d'impédance électrochimique et comparées à celle des matériaux massifs correspondant.

Le but de ce travail est de mettre au point une nouvelle technologie de dépôts de matériaux par voie sèche. Pour ce faire, nous avons développé, par une approche théorique et expérimentale, un nouveau procédé qui met en oeuvre la technologie de la projection thermique dans le domaine des basses pressions (inférieures à 10 hPa). Le domaine des basses pressions concerné par cette étude permet de générer de fortes enthalpies au niveau de la source thermique, à pression élevées, et de travailler à faibles pressions au niveau du substrat. Ce qui d'une part évite les contaminations chimiques (oxydation, réactions chimiques,...) dans les matériaux du dépôt et d'autre part réduit le taux de porosité et améliore l'adhérence de la couche ainsi construite. Ainsi, les propriétés physiques des dépôts obtenus s'approchent de celles des dépôts réalisés par le procédé de déposition en phase vapeur sous vide (PVD) en ayant l'avantage d'en accroître la vitesse d'obtention. Pendant ce travail, une approche théorique par des moyens de calcul (FLUENT) a permis d'étudier les conditions d'écoulement du plasma et l'effet de l'injection du matériau. Les résultats ont permis de définir un divergent de géométrie Laval adaptable à une torche classique F4VB de projection thermique sous pression réduite (VLPPS). En parallèle, une enceinte de grand volume adoptée au procédé a été conçue, réalisée et testée au sein du laboratoire. Cette enceinte, constituée d'une chambre mobile et d'une chambre fixe, est équipée d'un robot, de différents systèmes de diagnostics (thermocouples, DPV, spectromètre optique, pyromètre optique, etc.), de systèmes de refroidissement d'un porte substrat. Différents essais de matériaux métalliques ont permis de valider le concept et le procédé. Ensuite l'étude a concerné l'obtention de différents dépôts de matériaux à base de cuivre, à différentes pressions. Pour étudier les différents constituants du matériau issu de la torche, une méthode spécifique a été développée, qui permet de caractériser les phases vapeurs et solides créées de manière séparée et indépendante. Les résultats ont permis de comparer la structure des dépôts obtenus par ce procédé et par le procédé PVD, et de confirmer la possibilité d'obtention de revêtements denses ou colonnaires.

<p>Alumina-Zirconia thin films were grown on a range of substrates using dual magnetron sputtering. Film growth was achieved at a relatively low temperature of 450 °C and at higher temperatures up to 810 °C. The films were grown on well-defined surfaces such as silicon (100) but also on industrially relevant substrates such as hardmetal (WC-Co). Radio frequency power supplies were used in combination with magnetron sputtering to avoid problems with target arcing. A range of film compositions were possible by varying the power on each target. The influence of sputtering target were investigated, both ceramic oxide targets and metallic targets being used.</p><p>The phase composition of the as-deposited films was investigated by x-ray diffraction. The pure zirconia films contained the monoclinic zirconia phase, while the pure alumina films appeared either amorphous or contained the gamma-alumina phase. The composite films contained a mixture of amorphous alumina, gamma-alumina and the cubic zirconia phase. In-depth high-resolution electron microscopy studies revealed that the microstructures consisted of phase-separated alumina and zirconia nanocrystals in the case of the nanocomposites. In-situ spectroscopy was also performed to characterise the nature of the bonding within the as-deposited films.</p><p>The oxygen stoichiometry in the films was investigated as a possible reason for the stabilisation of the cubic zirconia phase in the nanocomposite. Ion beam techniques such as Rutherford backscattering scattering and electron recoil detection analysis were used in these studies. The growth of films with ceramic targets led to films that may be slightly understoichiometric in oxygen, causing the phase stabilisation. The growth of films from metallic targets necessitates oxygen rich plasmas and it is not expected that such films will be oxygen deficient.</p><p>Initial attempts were also made to characterise the mechanical properties of the new material with nanoindentation. The nanocomposite appeared to have greater resistance to wear than the pure zirconia film. In doing so, some surface interactions and some material interactions have been studied.</p> / Report code: LIU-TEK-LIC-2006:41

<p>Thin films of metals and compounds have a very wide range of applications today. Many of the deposition methods used for the production of such films utilize plasma to support the growth the film, e.g. by the supply of energy and the enhancement of reactivity. This thesis focuses on the physical vapor deposition (PVD) of thin films by high density plasma sources based on hollow cathodes and aims to increase the understanding of the deposition process and its influence on the film properties.</p><p>Titanium nitride films reactively deposited by the low-pressure hybrid plasma (HYP LP) source exhibited excellent properties and was deposited at considerable higher rates than films deposited by conventional methods.</p><p>An original finding in this work is the influence of substrate material on the deposition process and consequently on the properties of the deposited film. In the deposition of TiN films by the HYP LP source it was found that the substrate temperature was higher for Si substrates than for steel substrates due to a more efficient absorption of microwave power in Si than in steel. Further, it was found that ferromagnetic substrates influence the film growth in magnetized plasma systems. An effect of the ferromagnetic substrates is the enhancement of ion bombardment that increases the growth temperature and affects the texture and morphology of the growing films. It was also found that a DC bias can change the TiN film properties considerably and compensate the effect of ferromagnetic substrates.</p><p>High rate depositions of chromium and chromium nitride films by the RF hollow cathode plasma jet (RHCPJ) source were studied. The performance of the reactive diffuse arc process and the CrN film properties indicates that the process can be transferred from small cylindrical cathodes to linear magnetized hollow cathodes which allow deposition on considerable larger areas and this is important for industrial applications.</p>

A study of the effect of catalyst properties on the synthesis of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) is done in this thesis. Three different metal alloy catalysts, Fe/Ti, Ni/Ti, Co/Ti, have been studied. Various atomic concentrations and thicknesses were cosputter deposited on clean Si wafers using AJA Orion 4 RF Magnetron sputter deposition tool at 5mtorr and 17��C, and the films were characterized using a scanning electron microscope, Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. All the alloys have been annealed at 650��C and 3 torr in an argon atmosphere at 100 SCCM, followed by ammonia gas plasma etch at different powers at 3 torr and 50 SCCM NH��� flow in a modified parallel plate RF chemical vapor deposition tool for 1 minute. The influence of plasma power, thickness of catalyst and concentration of Ti the secondary metal in the alloy composition, on the surface morphology of the catalyst are investigated by characterizing them with atomic force microscopy. The study has shown that the surface roughness is affected by Ti concentration, thickness and plasma power. The 35 W power NH��� plasma produced rougher surfaces when compared to the 75 W NH��� plasma. The result is interpreted as follows: ion bombardment leads to greater etching of the catalyst surface. Thus, plasma power must be optimized for catalyst thin film and etch time. The study has provided an in depth analysis and understanding of the various factors that influence catalyst surface morphology which can be applied into further study for optimizing parameters for synthesis of single walled CNTs. Following this, a study on catalysts for CNT synthesis was performed using Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition and characterized by scanning electron microscope. CNTs were synthesized on Ni, Ni-Ti, Co, Co-Ti and Fe catalyst. Ni, Ni-Ti catalyst produced forest like vertically aligned CNTs whereas Co, Co-Ti produced vertically aligned free standing CNTs. The growth was dense and uniform across the substrate. Initial growth runs on Fe, Fe-Ti alloy did not produce any CNTs until catalyst was restructured with a thicker Ti under layer after an investigation using Secondary ion mass spectrometry of suspected Fe catalyst poisoning due to reaction with Si substrate. A room temperature run was carried out on annealed and plasma etched Ni catalyst and no CNTs were produced indicating the importance of substrate temperature of CNTs. A deeper understanding of factors of influence on CNTs such as catalyst types, structure/morphology, and substrate temperature has been achieved with this study. / Graduation date: 2013

Alumina-Zirconia thin films were grown on a range of substrates using dual magnetron sputtering. Film growth was achieved at a relatively low temperature of 450 °C and at higher temperatures up to 810 °C. The films were grown on well-defined surfaces such as silicon (100) but also on industrially relevant substrates such as hardmetal (WC-Co). Radio frequency power supplies were used in combination with magnetron sputtering to avoid problems with target arcing. A range of film compositions were possible by varying the power on each target. The influence of sputtering target were investigated, both ceramic oxide targets and metallic targets being used. The phase composition of the as-deposited films was investigated by x-ray diffraction. The pure zirconia films contained the monoclinic zirconia phase, while the pure alumina films appeared either amorphous or contained the gamma-alumina phase. The composite films contained a mixture of amorphous alumina, gamma-alumina and the cubic zirconia phase. In-depth high-resolution electron microscopy studies revealed that the microstructures consisted of phase-separated alumina and zirconia nanocrystals in the case of the nanocomposites. In-situ spectroscopy was also performed to characterise the nature of the bonding within the as-deposited films. The oxygen stoichiometry in the films was investigated as a possible reason for the stabilisation of the cubic zirconia phase in the nanocomposite. Ion beam techniques such as Rutherford backscattering scattering and electron recoil detection analysis were used in these studies. The growth of films with ceramic targets led to films that may be slightly understoichiometric in oxygen, causing the phase stabilisation. The growth of films from metallic targets necessitates oxygen rich plasmas and it is not expected that such films will be oxygen deficient. Initial attempts were also made to characterise the mechanical properties of the new material with nanoindentation. The nanocomposite appeared to have greater resistance to wear than the pure zirconia film. In doing so, some surface interactions and some material interactions have been studied. / Report code: LIU-TEK-LIC-2006:41

Thin films of metals and compounds have a very wide range of applications today. Many of the deposition methods used for the production of such films utilize plasma to support the growth the film, e.g. by the supply of energy and the enhancement of reactivity. This thesis focuses on the physical vapor deposition (PVD) of thin films by high density plasma sources based on hollow cathodes and aims to increase the understanding of the deposition process and its influence on the film properties. Titanium nitride films reactively deposited by the low-pressure hybrid plasma (HYP LP) source exhibited excellent properties and was deposited at considerable higher rates than films deposited by conventional methods. An original finding in this work is the influence of substrate material on the deposition process and consequently on the properties of the deposited film. In the deposition of TiN films by the HYP LP source it was found that the substrate temperature was higher for Si substrates than for steel substrates due to a more efficient absorption of microwave power in Si than in steel. Further, it was found that ferromagnetic substrates influence the film growth in magnetized plasma systems. An effect of the ferromagnetic substrates is the enhancement of ion bombardment that increases the growth temperature and affects the texture and morphology of the growing films. It was also found that a DC bias can change the TiN film properties considerably and compensate the effect of ferromagnetic substrates. High rate depositions of chromium and chromium nitride films by the RF hollow cathode plasma jet (RHCPJ) source were studied. The performance of the reactive diffuse arc process and the CrN film properties indicates that the process can be transferred from small cylindrical cathodes to linear magnetized hollow cathodes which allow deposition on considerable larger areas and this is important for industrial applications.

This thesis reports on synthesis, microstructure and properties of binary and ternary carbide thin films deposited by dc magnetron sputtering. These materials are interesting since they exhibit a wide range of useful properties, such as high hardness, resistance to wear and oxidation, and high electrical conductivity. Here, an early transition metal (M) and carbon (C) have been used as the basis, often with the addition of a second M-element or an A-group element (A). In these systems nanocomposites, metastable solid solutions, multilayers, or Mn+1AXn-phases have been deposited. The Mn+1AXn-phases are a group of nanolaminated compounds with a unique mixture of metallic and ceramic properties. In general X is carbon or nitrogen, although here only carbon has been used. Epitaxial MAX-phase thin films of Ti2AlC, Ti3AlC2 and V2GeC have been deposited for the first time. They have been studied with emphasis on phase stability, phase composition and nucleation characteristics to gain deeper insights into their growth. The microstructure of the films was characterized by electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. In addition, bond strength characteristics have been studied by soft X-ray spectroscopy and complementary calculations within DFT. Their mechanical and electrical properties have been studied, and the results are discussed on the basis of their electronic structure. Furthermore, by interleaving the Ti3SiC2 MAX-phase with TiC0.67 a multilayer structure has been formed, for which a new intrusion-type deformation behaviour has been described. A new concept in the design of nanocomposite films has been developed, whereby a solid solution of a weak carbide-forming element in the carbide structure creates a driving force for surface segregation of C. This concept has been verified both theoretically and experimentally for the Ti-Al-C and Ti-Fe-C systems. It has been shown by pin-on-disc measurements that this surface segregation leads to graphitization and consequently a very low friction coefficient for these films. Finally, it has been demonstrated that low-friction films with tunable magnetic properties can be achieved in the Ti-Fe-C system.

Nous étudions les mécanismes d'endommagement dus à l'érosion pluie sur des matériaux massifs et sur des matériaux revêtus. Pour cela, un banc d'essais spécifique a permis de mener des recherches en laboratoire. Le principe de l'essai repose sur l'émission de jets à haute vitesse et à haute fréquence.L'étude des matériaux massifs met en évidence un mécanisme de propagation de fissures par fatigue qui aboutit à des pertes de matière. Ces mêmes endommagements ont été observés sur des échantillons usés en service. Il a été confirmé que la dureté augmente la résistance à l'érosion pluie des matériaux métalliques.L'étude des revêtements s'est focalisée sur 2 technologies, à savoir la pulvérisation cathodique magnétron, qui est un procédé de déposition phase vapeur, et la projection thermique sous flamme supersonique. Les revêtements obtenus par projection thermique (dont l'épaisseur était supérieure à 200 μm), se sont révélés moins résistants à cause d'un manque d'adhérence ou de la présence de défauts au sein du matériau. Les revêtements obtenus par PVD (dont l'épaisseur était inférieure à 30 μm) ont permis d'obtenir des gains de résistance significatifs. Dans tous les cas, quel que soit la technologie utilisée, l'adhérence du revêtement s'est révélé être un paramètre critique en ce qui concerne la résistance de la surface à l'érosion pluie. Enfin, une simulation numérique en dynamique a permis d'étudier les champs de contraintes dans des feuillets métalliques, et ce, en faisant varier leurs épaisseurs, les matériaux qui les composent, et la vitesse d'impact. Les résultats de la simulation tendent à prouver que la propagation des ondes de contraintes dans le matériau peut entrainer des phénomènes de sur-contraintes dans les feuillets les plus fins à cause de la réflexion des ondes sur la face antérieure de la plaque.