This thesis will map the situation of women in the labour market, who are also mothers. The main objective of this thesis is to refute or confirm the hypothesis about the correlation of the financial situation of women, respectively the level of education and efforts to return to work and also the attractiveness of flexi-time jobs. The theoretical part will examine the possibilities for various form of assistance in returning to the labour market and to compare the situation of Czech women on a European scale. In the practical part I will assess the responses from the questionnaire survey and decide on the basis of an analysis of hypotheses. The survey will be conducted in selected regions of the Czech Republic.

This thesis addresses the persisting gendered division of parental leave in Sweden, where despite policies promoting equal sharing, women still take 70 % of the leave. Aiming to analyze what hinders and what enables equal division of parental leave, I conduct in-depth interviews with eight parents who equally share leave and six parents who do not. Thematic analysis is initially used to explore motivations for parental leave division. Subsequently, I use a theoretical framework focused on motherhood, fatherhood, and care ideals aiming to scrutinize how these ideals influence the division of parental leave. The equally sharing respondents constitute a unique group and by comparing their motivations to respondents who do not share equally, the study does not only generate knowledge about what hinders equal sharing of parental leave, but also highlights what enables it. This is important for gender equality in general and a clear political goal for Swedish family politics. The results indicate that the equally sharing group are guided by ideals of shared parenting, gender equality, and active involvement in both work and caregiving, emphasizing early bonding with both parents. In contrast, the non-equally sharing group, while expressing some desire for gender equality, leans towards more traditional motherhood ideals, legitimizing mothers' preferences for extended leave. Both groups share a commitment to involved fatherhood, but fathers in the non-equally sharing group encounter additional constraints tied to financial considerations and tend to perceive paternity leave as optional rather than obligatory.

This dissertation provides program evaluation and policy analysis evidence from USA and Iran. The first chapter studies the impact of paid leave legislation on women employment. We employ California’s first-in-the-nation Paid Family Leave program to draw inference using difference-in-differences and triple differences methods. The change in the employment outcomes for women before and after this program is compared to the change in similar outcomes for a set of control groups. We find that women’s employment increased in the intensive margin but not extensive margin. We also find that wages increased for married prime-age and decreased for highly educated young women. The second chapter provides evidence on the impact of a nation-wide unconditional cash transfer program in Iran on labor supply. As compensation for the removal of bread and energy subsidies in 2011, the government of Iran started monthly deposits of cash into individual family accounts amounting to 29% of the median household income. A popular outcry against the subsidy reform program has focused on the negative labor supply effects of the cash transfers on the poor. We use panel data to study the impact of these transfers on the labor supply of poor households and individuals during the first two years of the program, before inflation reduced their value. We use the exogenous variation in the value of the cash transfers relative to household income to estimate the impact of the transfers on labor supply of individuals using fixed effects method. We also use a difference-in-differences methodology using the variation in the time households first started receiving transfers. Although everyone was eligible to receive cash transfers starting January 2011, about 20 percent of the households who for one reason or another did not submit their application in time, started receiving it three months later. Neither set of results support the hypothesis that cash transfers reduced labor supply as measured by hours of work or probability of employment. The third chapter analyses what happens to the welfare of households and the budget of the government if it implements further price reforms in Iran. Five years into the reform, energy prices in Iran were still well below international levels. The impacts of a gradualist approach to price increase versus a one-off approach are simulated in this chapter. Under the gradualist approach government savings (reduction in foregone earnings) from selling subsidized items will increase by 20.2 trillion Rials or 0.18 percent of GDP in 2014. Half of these savings is needed as transfers to households to keep the poverty rate constant by paying each person 17,059 Rials per month. A one-off price increase would have a large effect on poverty and would require transfers equivalent to 203,775 Rials per person per month. Government savings after transfers would equal 96.4 trillion Rials or 0.87 percent of GDP. / Ph. D. / This dissertation evaluates what happened to employment after the implementation of two programs; California Family Paid Leave program and Cash transfer program in Iran. It also predicts what would happen to the well-being of households if prices of energy carriers increase in Iran. The first chapter studies the impact of paid leave legislation in California on women employment. The change in the employment outcomes like hours of work per week and wages for California’s women before and after this program is compared to the change in similar outcomes for other states. We find that women’s employment increased after this program. We also find that wages increased for married prime-age and decreased for highly educated young women. The second chapter provides evidence on the impact of a nation-wide cash transfer program in Iran on employment outcomes. As compensation for the removal of bread and energy subsidies in 2011, the government of Iran started a sizable monthly deposit of cash into individual family accounts. A popular outcry against the subsidy reform program has focused on the lower incentive to work especially on the poor. Neither set of results support the hypothesis that cash transfers reduced labor supply as measured by hours of work or probability of employment. The third chapter analyses what happens to the welfare of households and the budget of the government if it implements further price reforms in Iran. Five years into the reform, energy prices in Iran were still well below international levels. The impacts of two approaches to price increase are simulated in this chapter. In the gradualist approach, prices increased 10% each year. In this approach government savings will increase by 20.2 trillion Rials in 2014. Half of these savings is needed as transfers to households to keep the poverty rate constant. A one-off price increase would have a large effect on poverty and would require transfers equivalent to 203,775 Rials per person per month. Government savings after transfers would equal 96.4 trillion Rials.

<p><strong>Syfte:</strong> Att undersöka pappors tankar och erfarenheter kring föräldrautbildning och föräldraledighet under barnets första levnadsår. <strong>Metod: </strong>Explorativ kvalitativ intervjustudie. Ett målinriktat bekvämlighetsurval gjordes och semistrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes med nio män som blivit pappor under de senaste två åren. Data analyserades med kvalitativ innehållsanalys. <strong>Resultat: </strong>Föräldrautbildningen bör inriktas mer på det gemensamma föräldraskapet än på graviditet och förlossning. Trots utbildningens mammaperspektiv känner sig papporna inkluderade. En majoritet av papporna ser det som en självklarhet att ta ut en längre föräldraledighet. Positiva tankar om att dela lika på föräldradagarna är att få en nära relation med barnet och få en högre grad av jämställdhet och förståelse för varandras situation. Amning, föräldrarnas arbetsförhållanden och ekonomi är viktiga aspekter för fördelningen av föräldradagarna. Även könsroller och rollförväntningar har betydelse. Papporna är negativa till att tvingas dela helt lika men är positiva till en ökad kvotering. <strong>Slutsats: </strong>Att ta ut en längre föräldraledighet och att föräldraskapet är gemensamt ses som en självklarhet för majoriteten av papporna. Föräldrautbildningen bör riktas till båda föräldrarna och fokus bör ligga på det kommande föräldraskapet. Anknytningen till barnet och jämställdhet mellan föräldrarna ses som positiva aspekter av att dela lika på föräldradagarna.</p> / <p> </p><p><strong>Aim: </strong>To examine fathers’ thoughts and experiences concerning parental education and male parental leave during the child´s first year. <strong>Method: </strong>An exploratory qualitative interview study. A target-oriented convenience selection was made and semi-structured interviews with nine men whom had all become fathers within the last two years were carried out. A qualitative content analysis was made. <strong>Results: </strong>Parental education should be more focused on the joint parenthood than on pregnancy and childbirth. In spite of the mothers’ perspective during the education fathers feel included. For a majority of the fathers a longer parental leave is a matter of course. Shared parental leave can facilitate the connection between the father and the child, and may increase gender equality as well as the understanding for the other parent´s situation. Breast-feeding, the parents’ working conditions and economy are aspects of importance regarding the divisions of the parental leave. Even gender roles and gender role expectations are important aspects. The fathers’ have a negative attitude regarding a statutory shared parental leave but are positive to an increased allocation of quotas. <strong>Conclusion: </strong>Parenthood is seen as a joint responsibility, and a longer period of parental leave is a matter of course for a majority of the fathers. Parental education should be directed to both parents and the education should be focused on the coming parenthood. A facilitation of the connection between father and child and gender equality among the parents are positive aspects of shared parental leave. <strong></strong></p>

Syfte: Att undersöka pappors tankar och erfarenheter kring föräldrautbildning och föräldraledighet under barnets första levnadsår. Metod: Explorativ kvalitativ intervjustudie. Ett målinriktat bekvämlighetsurval gjordes och semistrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes med nio män som blivit pappor under de senaste två åren. Data analyserades med kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultat: Föräldrautbildningen bör inriktas mer på det gemensamma föräldraskapet än på graviditet och förlossning. Trots utbildningens mammaperspektiv känner sig papporna inkluderade. En majoritet av papporna ser det som en självklarhet att ta ut en längre föräldraledighet. Positiva tankar om att dela lika på föräldradagarna är att få en nära relation med barnet och få en högre grad av jämställdhet och förståelse för varandras situation. Amning, föräldrarnas arbetsförhållanden och ekonomi är viktiga aspekter för fördelningen av föräldradagarna. Även könsroller och rollförväntningar har betydelse. Papporna är negativa till att tvingas dela helt lika men är positiva till en ökad kvotering. Slutsats: Att ta ut en längre föräldraledighet och att föräldraskapet är gemensamt ses som en självklarhet för majoriteten av papporna. Föräldrautbildningen bör riktas till båda föräldrarna och fokus bör ligga på det kommande föräldraskapet. Anknytningen till barnet och jämställdhet mellan föräldrarna ses som positiva aspekter av att dela lika på föräldradagarna. / Aim: To examine fathers’ thoughts and experiences concerning parental education and male parental leave during the child´s first year. Method: An exploratory qualitative interview study. A target-oriented convenience selection was made and semi-structured interviews with nine men whom had all become fathers within the last two years were carried out. A qualitative content analysis was made. Results: Parental education should be more focused on the joint parenthood than on pregnancy and childbirth. In spite of the mothers’ perspective during the education fathers feel included. For a majority of the fathers a longer parental leave is a matter of course. Shared parental leave can facilitate the connection between the father and the child, and may increase gender equality as well as the understanding for the other parent´s situation. Breast-feeding, the parents’ working conditions and economy are aspects of importance regarding the divisions of the parental leave. Even gender roles and gender role expectations are important aspects. The fathers’ have a negative attitude regarding a statutory shared parental leave but are positive to an increased allocation of quotas. Conclusion: Parenthood is seen as a joint responsibility, and a longer period of parental leave is a matter of course for a majority of the fathers. Parental education should be directed to both parents and the education should be focused on the coming parenthood. A facilitation of the connection between father and child and gender equality among the parents are positive aspects of shared parental leave.

The sports in Sweden has previously been self-regulated with its own rules and provisions. As the commercialisation and professionalization have increased the common legal system has a greater impact on sports. The purpose of this study is to investigate the professional ice hockey adjustments to the labour law regulation. Furthermore the purpose is to illuminate possible advantage and disadvantage with the professional ice hockey player’s conditions of employment. To answer the purpose and the research questions of this study the legal dogmatic method, the legal sociology method and qualitative method with interviews has been used. The study shows how the professional ice hockey has adapted the labour law regulations with collective agreement due to the semi-dispositive provisions found in Swedish labour law. In Swedish professional ice hockey only the fixed-term contract is applied and most of the provisions about employment security are not available for the ice hockey players. In return the players has a stronger protection during the employment. As an employee and a parent the right to have a parental leave is statutory. The study shows a complex of problems with ice hockey player’s opportunity to have a parental leave, which is a right as an employee. This raises questions about equality between men and women in the labour market of ice hockey.

This thesis looks at how parental leave and early child care policies in the U.S. can reshape our understanding of the role of government, parental responsibility, and gender within paid labor in order to dismantle the systems of oppression and domination that lead to motherhood inequality. The United States is the only developed economy without mandated paid parental leave, and privatized child care costs can be greater than tuition at public universities. As a result, mothers, still overwhelmingly the primary caregivers in families, are forced to juggle the responsibilities of paid and domestic labor in a way that leads to employment discrimination. Because policies have a unique power to incentivize behavior and change socially ingrained biases, I propose that Congress institute paid parental leave through the FAMILY Act and revives the Comprehensive Child Development Act of 1971 to establish public child care.

This essay has the purpose to explore what awareness women in their professional lives have over how the choices they make affect their pension. Together with the reasoning behind the choices who will later affect their economy in old age retirement. Through connections with staff at a kindergarden I found women who unconstrained choose to be apart of the study, consisting of women in working age in a relationship and they all had children. It was my intention to make a qualitative interview study where I interviewed women to get their thoughts and how they act in certain situations during their professional life. After I had conducted the interwiews I noticed that the results could be seen in relationship to norms and values in socitey. By using a norm theory the answers could be analysed and the norm that was constructed by the women was highlighted. As a complement to the norm theory i used a gender theory to explain why these women took those actions whom was highlighted in these interwiews. The act that was highlighted was that women take more parental leave than men which research proves affects womens economic in retirement negative and the norm that could be constructed was that men work full time.

Studien syftade till att explorativt undersöka mäns erfarenheter av att vara föräldraledig samt till att få en ökad förståelse kring deras upplevelser av föräldraledigheten. Tio män som hade varit föräldralediga minst nittio dagar deltog i studien. Intervjuer användes för datainsamling tillsammans med en intervjuguide. En tematisk analys användes för att analysera datamaterialet. Ur analysen skapades tre teman som beskriver mäns upplevelser av att vara föräldraledig. Temana var: Att kliva in i en värld tillsammans med barnet, Förståelsen för partnern samt Traditionella könsroller. Ur berättelserna framkom bland annat att det krävs viss anpassning att hitta sin nya roll i en situation som tidigare tillhört kvinnans domän och att det kan vara svårt att bryta sig in. Respondenterna beskrev hur dem utvecklat en närmare relation till barnen tack vare föräldraledigheten. Vidare belyste respondenterna att gamla könsroller till viss del är framträdande och att inställningen till mäns föräldraledighet inte alltid överensstämmer med dagens diskussioner om ökad jämställdhet. / The study aimed at explorative describe men`s experiences of parental leave and to get a greater understanding of their experiences of parental leave. Ten men who had been on parental leave for at least ninety days participated in the study. Interviews where used in collecting data along with an interview guide. A thematic analysis was used to analyze data. From the analysis three themes that narrate men`s perceptions of parental leave were created. The themes where: To step into a world with the child, Understanding of the partner and Traditional gender roles. The stories revealed among other things that it takes some adjustment to find their new role in a situation that previously belonged to the woman`s domain and that it can be difficult to enter. The respondents described how they developed a closer relationship with the children thanks to parental leave. Futhermore the respondents highlighted that old gender roles to some extent is prominent and that the attitude towards men´s parental leave is not always consistent with today´s discussions about greater equality.

The thesis will deal with the views and ideas of expectant parents how to articulate concerns for their child with employment and unpaid domestic work. The thesis will also focus on the transition to parenthood as a new phase of family life. The author will try to uncover the current situation and strategies of young couples. Keywords Maternity leave, parental leave, strategies, housework Obsah Úvod............................................................................................................................................7 1. Teoretická část........................................................................................................................8 1.1 Rodina...............................................................................................................................8 1.1.1 Proměny rodiny..........................................................................................................8 1.1.2 Demografické trendy vývoje české rodiny................................................................9 1.2 Představy a změny očekávané s narozením potomka - kvantitativní pohled.................11 1.3 Rodinné a pracovní dráhy...............................................................................................13 1.4 Slaďování rodinného a...