[pt] Estenose é uma constrição ou estreitamento de um duto ou de uma passagem. Este termo é usado freqüentemente em referência a constrições que ocorrem em vasos sangüíneos, especialmente em artérias. Um vaso estenótico geralmente causa estagnação do fluxo sangüíneo e portanto a formação de trombos, os quais podem ser bastante pre- judiciais à saúde humana. Neste trabalho realizam-se experimentos com a técnica de velocimetria por imagens de partículas (PIV) a fim de estudar o escoamento de um líquido que possui uma tensão limite de escoamento (ou líquido viscoplástico) através de um tubo na vizinhança de uma constrição axissimétrica. Escolheu-se a reologia do líquido de modo a se aproximar daquela do sangue de hematócrito igual a 54%. Estudaram-se números de Reynolds e números de escoamento característicos para diferentes artérias. Obtiveram-se também resultados para fluidos Newtonianos, para fins de comparação. Entre outros resultados, observou- se que a reologia não Newtoniana causa mudanças significativas no padrão de escoamento na vizinhança da estenose. Como as condições para formação de trombos estão diretamente relacionadas com o padrão de escoamento, estudos do escoamento do sangue através de artérias com estenose que supõem uma reologia Newtoniana podem levar a conclusões errôneas. / [en] Stenosis is a constriction or narrowing of a duct or passage. This word is often used to refer to constrictions that occur in blood vessels, especially arteries. A stenotic vessel generally causes blood flow stagnation and hence formation of thrombus, which may be rather harmful to the human physiology. In this work we perform particle image velocimetry (PIV) experiments to study the flow of an yield-stress (or highly shear-thinning) liquid through a tube in the neighborhood of an axisymmetric constriction. The rheology of the liquid was chosen to be close to the one of blood with 54% hematocrit. Reynolds and Yield number values characteristic to different arteries have been studied. Results for a Newtonian liquid were also obtained, for comparison purposes. Among other findings, it has been observed that the non-Newtonian rheology causes a significant change in the flow pattern in the neighborhood of the stenosis. Because the conditions for thrombus formation are directly related to the flow pattern, studies of the flow through stenotic vessels that assume a Newtonian rheology may lead to erroneous conclusions.

[pt] A ocorrência do escoamento slug em tubulações horizontais é de especial interesse para a indústria de petróleo devido aos riscos operacionais indesejados associados a esse padrão de escoamento. Portanto, nas últimas décadas um intenso esforço foi dedicado ao estudo e modelagem do escoamento slug. Ferramentas preditivas baseadas na estabilidade linear de Kelvin-Helmhotz foram amplamente desenvolvidas na literatura para prever a transição para esse regime de escoamento. Esses modelos são derivados da análise de estabilidade modal de perturbações bem definidas. No entanto, para escoamento em tubulação, um número bastante limitado de estudos experimentais dedicados para investigação da evolução de perturbações que originem o regime slug está disponível. Além disso, estudos a partir da introdução de perturbações bem definidas, que podem fornecer informações precisas para validação de modelos e simulações numéricas, foram encontrados. O presente trabalho abordou o problema da transição para o regime slug a partir da caracterização da evolução de ondas interfaciais. Essas perturbações controladas foram excitadas com um modo de geração na interface do escoamento estratificado utilizando uma placa oscilatória. O trabalho se concentra na caracterização de ondas interfaciais no regime linear, que corresponde ao regime de estudo da maioria dos modelos disponíveis na literatura. Portanto, um limiar de amplitude para ondas lineares foi estimado experimentalmente. O acionamento da placa oscilatória foi sincronizado com as aquisições de imagens, permitindo medições sincronizadas em fase. As medições do campo de velocidade foram realizadas usando a técnica de Velocimetria de Imagem de Partículas (PIV) e Iluminação de Fundo (Shadowgraphy). O perfil de velocidade e turbulência do escoamento foram medidos simultaneamente nas fases do liquido e do gás. A sincronização em fase permitiu a extração do perfil de flutuação de velocidade coerentes as ondas interfaciais. Os resultados obtidos são originais e mostraram, pela primeira vez na literatura, que os modos interfaciais em ambas as fases são quase independentes dos modos cisalhantes, dentro da faixa de parâmetros abordados neste trabalho. A caracterização de ondas não lineares foi brevemente investigada, indicando mudanças no perfil do escoamento médio. Além disso, foi obtida uma correlação para o fator de atrito das ondas interfaciais, levando a uma melhoria na estimativa da altura do líquido e da perda de carga do tubo quando combinadas nas relações de fechamento dos modelos 1-D. A metodologia experimental proposta neste trabalho é uma ferramenta valiosa para produzir informações precisas que podem ser usadas para validar e aprimorar modelos teóricos e simulações numéricas. O estudo pode contribuir para a compreensão dos mecanismos físicos envolvidos na transição do escoamento estratificado para slug. / [en] The occurrence of slug regime in horizontal pipelines is of special interest for the oil and gas industry due to the unwanted operational risks associated with this flow. Hence, an intense effort has been devoted to the study and to model this flow regime. Predictive tools based on linear Kelvin-Helmhotz stability have been widely applied in the literature for prediction of slug onset. These models are derived from stability analysis of well-defined disturbances. However, for pipe flows, a limited number of experimental studies devoted to investigate the evolution of disturbances that lead to the initiation of slugs is available. In addition, no studies are found using of well define disturbances, which could provide accurate information for validation of models and numerical simulations. The present work addresses the problem by the studying of the evolution of controlled waves excited at the liquid interface. To this end, an oscillating paddle was employed. The work focuses the characterization of interfacial waves within the linear regime, which correspond to the regime of most models available in the literature. The amplitude threshold for linear waves was experimentally estimated. The driving signal of the oscillating paddle was synchronized with image acquisitions, enabling phase locked measurements of the waves and hence the use of ensemble averaging techniques. Phase-locked measurements of the velocity field in the liquid and gas layers were performed using off-axis Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique and Shadowgraph. Mean flow, streamwise and wall normal fluctuations were measured simultaneously in the liquid and gas phases. For a range of flow rates and exciting wave frequencies the combined techniques employed allowed the extraction from the measured velocity fields, the coherent part of flow fluctuations related with the exciting waves. The results obtained have shown, seemingly, for the first time, that interfacial modes in both phases are nearly independent of near wall disturbances within the range of parameters covered in this work. Characterization of nonlinear waves was briefly investigated indicating changes in the mean velocity. Moreover, a correlation for wave friction factor based on wave and flow parameters was obtained, leading to an improvement on the liquid heightand pipe head loss estimation when are combined into the closure relations used for the 1-D models. The experimental methodology proposed in this work is a valuable tool to produce accurate information that can be used to validate and improve theoretical models and numerical simulations. It can contribute to the understanding of the physical mechanisms involved in the transition from stratified to slug flows.

Cardiovascular diseases are among the leading causes of deaths worldwide, but the fluid mechanics of many of these conditions and the devices used to treat them are only partially understood. This goal of this dissertation was to develop new experimental techniques that would enable translational research into two of these conditions. The first set of experiments examined <i>in-vitro</i> the changes in Wall Shear Stress (WSS) and Oscillatory Shear Index (OSI) caused by the implantation of coronary stents into the arteries of the heart using Particle Image Velocimetry. These experiments featured one-to-one scaling, commercial stents, and realistic flow and pressure waveforms, and are believed to be the most physiologically accurate stent experiments to date. This work revealed distinct differences in WSS and OSI between the different stent designs tested, and showed that changes in implantation configuration also affected these hemodynamic parameters. Also, the production of vortices near the stent struts during flow reversal was noted, and an inverse correlation between WSS and OSI was described. The second set of experiments investigated Left Ventricular Diastolic Dysfunction (LVDD) using phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging (pcMRI). Using this technique, ten patients with and without LVDD were scanned and a 2D portrait of blood flow through their heart was obtained. To augment this data, pressure fields were calculated from the velocity data using an omni-directional pressure integration scheme coupled with a proper-orthogonal decomposition-based smoothing. This technique was selected from a variety of methods from the literature based on an extensive error analysis and comparison. With this coupled information, it was observed that healthy patients exhibited different flow patterns than diseased patients, and had stronger pressure differences during early filling. In particular, the ratio of early filling pressure to late filling pressure was a statistically significant predictor of diastolic dysfunction. Based on these observations, a novel hypothesis was presented that related the motion of the heart walls to the observed flow patterns and pressure gradients, which may explain the differences observed clinically between healthy and diseased patients. / Ph. D.

Acoustic and aerodynamic measurements have been carried out on a rotor operating in a planar turbulent boundary layer near a wall for a variety of thrust conditions and yaw angles with respect to the inflow. At the highest thrust condition a strong flow reversal in the wall-rotor tip gap was observed. Average velocity fields filtered by the angular position of the rotor show that the flow reversal is fed by jets of fluid that tend to form below the blade as it passes by the wall. Instantaneous velocity measurements show the presence of strong vortices in the tip gap. These vortices were characterized and found to be both stronger and more numerous on the downstroke side of the tip gap. Additionally, vortices with the same handedness as the bound circulation in the blade were more numerous and only located on the downstroke side of the tip gap. Those with the opposite handedness were found to be only located on the upstroke side. Unexpectedly strong far-field acoustic response at the blade passage frequency at this highest thrust condition and is believed to be due to an interaction of the blade tip with these vortices. At moderate thrust, when the rotor was yawed toward the downstroke side the far field acoustic response at the blade passage frequency was found to increase. The opposite was true as it was yawed toward the upstroke side. At the highest thrust, however the unyawed rotor had the strongest blade passage frequency response which is believed to be due to stronger vortex-tip interaction in this case. / Master of Science

Digital Particle Image Velocimetry (DPIV) is a planar measurement technique to measure the velocity within a fluid by correlating the motion of flow tracers over a sequence of images recorded with a camera-laser system. Sophisticated digital processing algorithms are required to provide a high enough accuracy for quantitative DPIV results. This study explores the potential of a variety of cross-correlation filters to improve the accuracy and robustness of the DPIV estimation. These techniques incorporate the use of the Phase Transform (PHAT) Generalized Cross Correlation (GCC) filter applied to the image cross-correlation. The use of spatial windowing is subsequently examined and shown to be ideally suited for the use of phase correlation estimators, due to their invariance to the loss of correlation effects. The Robust Phase Correlation (RPC) estimator is introduced, with the coupled use of the phase correlation and spatial windowing. The RPC estimator additionally incorporates the use of a spectral filter designed from an analytical decomposition of the DPIV Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR). This estimator is validated in a variety of artificial image simulations, the JPIV standard image project, and experimental images, which indicate reductions in error on the order of 50% when correlating low SNR images. Two variations of the RPC estimator are also introduced, the Gaussian Transformed Phase Correlation (GTPC): designed to optimize the subpixel interpolation, and the Spectral Phase Correlation (SPC): estimates the image shift directly from the phase content of the correlation. While these estimators are designed for DPIV, the methodology described here provides a universal framework for digital signal correlation analysis, which could be extended to a variety of other systems. / Master of Science

Three-dimensional (3D) turbulent boundary layers (TBLs) play a crucial role in determining the aerodynamic properties of most aero-mechanical devices. However, accurately predicting these flows remains a challenge due to the complex nonlinear and nonlocal physics involved, which makes it difficult to develop universally applicable models. This limitation is particularly significant as the industry increasingly relies on simulations to make decisions in high-consequence environments, such as the certification or aircraft, and high-fidelity simulation methods that don't rely on modeling are prohibitively expensive. To address this challenge, it is essential to gain a better understanding of the physics underlying 3D TBLs. This research aims to improve the predictive accuracy of turbulence models in 3D TBLs by examining the impact of model assumptions underpinning turbulent constitutive relations, which are fundamental building blocks of every turbulence model. Specifically, the study focuses on the relevance and necessity of nonlinear and nonlocal model assumptions for accurately predicting 3D TBLs. The study considers the attached 3D boundary layer flow over the textbf{Be}nchmark textbf{V}alidation textbf{E}xperiment for textbf{R}ANS/textbf{L}ES textbf{I}nvestiagtions (BeVERLI) Hill as a test case and corresponding particle image velocimetry data for the investigation. In a first step, the BeVERLI Hill experiment is comprehensively described, and the important characteristics of the flow over the BeVERLI Hill are elucidated, including complex symmetry breaking characteristics of this flow. Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes simulations of the case using standard eddy viscosity models are then presented to establish the baseline behavior of local and linear constitutive relations, i.e., the standard Boussinesq approximation. The tested eddy viscosity models fail in the highly accelerated hill top region of the BeVERLI hill and near separation. In a further step, several nonlinear and nonlocal turbulent constitutive relations, including the QCR model, the model by Gatski and Speziale, and the difference-quotient model by Egolf are used as metrics to gauge the impact of nonlinearities and nonlocalities for the modeling of 3D TBLs. It is shown that nonlinear and nonlocal approaches are essential for effective 3D TBL modeling. However, simplified reduced-order models could accurately predict 3D TBLs without high computational costs. A constitutive relation with local second-order nonlinear mean strain relations and simplified nonlocal terms may provide such a minimal model. In a final step, the structure and response of non-equilibrium turbulence to continuous straining are studied to reveal new scaling laws and structural models. / Doctor of Philosophy / Airplanes and other flying objects rely on the way air flows around them to generate lift and stay in the sky. This airflow can be very complex, especially close to the surface of the object, where it is affected by friction with the object. This friction generates a layer of air called a boundary layer, which can become turbulent and lead to complex patterns of airflow. The boundary layer is generated by the friction between the air and the surface of the object, which causes the air molecules to "stick" to the surface. This sticking creates a layer of slow-moving air that slows down the flow of air around the object. This loss of momentum creates drag, which is one of the main factors that resist the motion of objects in the air. The slowing of the air flow in the boundary layer is due to the viscosity of the air, which is a measure of how resistant the air is to deformation. The molecules in the air have a tendency to stick together, making it difficult for them to move past each other. This resistance causes the momentum of the air to be lost as it flows over the surface of the object because air molecules close to the surface "pull" on the ones farther away. Understanding how turbulent boundary layers (TBLs) work is essential to accurately predict the airflow around these objects using computer simulations. However, it's challenging because TBLs involve complex physics that are difficult to model accurately. This research focuses on a specific type of TBL called a three-dimensional (3D) TBL. This study looks at how different assumptions affect the accuracy of computer simulations that predict this type of airflow. It is found that using more complex models that take into account nonlinear and nonlocal physics can help predict 3D TBLs more accurately. However, these models are computationally expensive, and it is also found that simpler models can work well enough and are cheaper. This research further establishes important physical relations of the mechanisms pertaining 3D TBLs that could support the advancement of current models.

[pt] Ao longo da história a engenharia de fluidos vem se mostrado como uma das áreas mais importantes da engenharia devido ao seu impacto nas áreas de transporte, energia e militar. A medição de campos de velocidade, por sua vez, é muito importante para estudos nas áreas de aerodinâmica e hidrodinâmica. As técnicas de medição de campo de velocidade em sua maioria são técnicas ópticas, se destacando a técnica de Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV). Por outro lado, nos últimos anos importantes avanços na área de visão computacional, baseados em redes neurais convolucionais, se mostram promissores para a melhoria do processamento das técnicas ópticas. Nesta dissertação, foi utilizada uma abordagem híbrida entre correlação cruzada e cascata de redes neurais convolucionais, para desenvolver uma nova técnica de PIV. O projeto se baseou nos últimos trabalhos de PIV com redes neurais artificiais para desenvolver a arquitetura das redes e sua forma de treinamento. Diversos formatos de cascata de redes neurais foram testados até se chegar a um formato que permitiu reduzir o erro em uma ordem de grandeza para escoamento uniforme. Além do desenvolvimento da cascata para escoamento uniforme, gerou-se conhecimento para fazer cascatas para outros tipos de escoamentos. / [en] Throughout history, fluid engineering is one of the most important areas of engineering due to its impact in the areas of transportation, energy and the military. The measurement of velocity fields is important for studies in aerodynamics and hydrodynamics. The techniques for measuring the velocity field are mostly optical techniques, with emphasis on the PIV technique. On the other hand, in recent years, important advances in computer vision, based on convolutional neural networks, have shown promise for improving the processing of optical techniques. In this work, a hybrid approach between cross-correlation and cascade of convolutional neural networks was used to develop a new PIV technique. The project was based on the latest work of PIV with an artificial neural network to develop the architecture of the networks and their form of training. Several cascade formats of neural networks were tested until they reached a format that allowed the error to be reduced by an order of magnitude for uniform flow. In addition to the development of the cascade for uniform flow, knowledge was generated to make cascades for other types of flows.

No description available.

Measuring the liquid velocity and turbulence parameters in multiphase flows is a challenging task. In general, measurements based on optical methods are hindered by the presence of the gas phase. In the present work, it is shown that this leads to a sampling bias. Here, particle image velocimetry (PIV) is used to measure the liquid velocity and turbulence in a bubble column for different gas volume flow rates. As a result, passing bubbles lead to a significant sampling bias, which is evaluated by the mean liquid velocity and Reynolds stress tensor components. To overcome the sampling bias a window averaging procedure that waits a time depending on the locally distributed velocity information (hold processor) is derived. The procedure is demonstrated for an analytical test function. The PIV results obtained with the hold processor are reasonable for all values. By using the new procedure, reliable liquid velocity measurements in bubbly flows, which are vitally needed for CFD validation and modeling, are possible. In addition, the findings are general and can be applied to other flow situations and measuring techniques.

This thesis focuses on generating real world turbulence levels in a water tunnel rotor test using fractal grids and characterizing the effect of the fractal grid generated-turbulence on the performance of hydrokinetic turbines. The research of this thesis is divided into three studies: one field study and two laboratory studies. The field study was conducted at the Canadian Hydro Kinetic Turbine Test Centre (CHTTC) on the Winnipeg River. An Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (ADV) was used in the field study to collect flow measurements in the river. The laboratory studies were conducted at the University of Victoria (UVic) fluids research lab and the Sustainable Systems Design Lab (SSDL). In addition, the Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique was used in the experiential studies to obtain quantitative information about the vector flow field along the test section, both upstream and downstream of the rotor’s plane. The first study is a field study aiming to provide real flow characteristics and turbulence properties at different depths from the free-surface to boundary layer region of a fast river current by conducting a field study in the Winnipeg River using ADV. A novel technique to deploy and control an ADV from free-surface to boundary layer in a fast-current channel is introduced in this work. Flow characteristics in the river, including mean flow velocities and turbulence intensity profiles are analyzed. The obtained results indicate that the maximum mean velocity occurs below the free-surface, suggesting that the mean velocity is independent of the channel depth. From the free-surface to half depth, it was found that changes in both the mean velocity and turbulence intensity are gradual. From mid-depth to the river bed, the mean velocity drops rapidly while the turbulence intensity increases at a fast rate. The turbulent intensity varied from 9% at the free-surface to around 17.5% near the river bed. The results of this study were used in the second lab study to help designing a fractal grid for a recirculating water flume tank. The goal was to modify the turbulence intensity in the water tunnel such that the generated turbulence was similar to that in the river at a location typical of a hydrokinetic device. The properties of fractal-generated turbulence were experimentally investigated by means of 2D Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV). The streamwise turbulent intensity profiles for different grids along the channel are presented. Additionally, visualization of the average and fluctuating flow fields are also presented. The results are in good agreement with results in literature. The third and final study investigated the power coefficient of a scale hydrokinetic turbine rotor in controlled turbulent flow (7.4 % TI), as well as in the low-turbulence smooth flow (0.5% TI) typical of lab scale testing. PIV was employed for capturing the velocity field. The results show that using realistic TI levels in the water tunnel significantly decrease the turbine’s power coefficient compared to smooth flow, highlighting the importance of considering this effect in future experimental campaigns. / Graduate