Det här projektet optimerar ett system som använder den statiska sökalgoritmen A* för att fåen autonom drönare att kunna undvika rörliga och målsökande hinder på sin färd emot enangiven måldestination. Optimeringen bygger på tidigare arbeten där bland annat ModelPredictive Control (MPC) har en stor påverkan på det implementerade systemet.Resultatet av projektet visar att det är möjligt att optimera ett system som använder sig av enstatisk planeringsalgoritm genom lokal planering inom det område drönaren har kunskap om.Ett högt planeringstempo där drönaren enbart följer första delen i den genererade planen,möjliggör att drönaren hela tiden kan anpassa sig till förändringar i omgivningen och undvikakollision. / This project optimizes a system that uses the static search algorithm A* to enable anautonomous drone to avoid moving and target-seeking obstacles on its way to a specifieddestination. The optimization is based on previous work where Model Predictive Control(MPC) has a major impact on the implemented system.The result of the project shows that it is possible to optimize a system using a static planningalgorithm through local planning in the area of which the drone has knowledge. A highplanning pace enables the drone to follow the first part of the generated plan, which meansthat the drone can constantly adapt to changes in the surroundings and avoid collisions.

This thesis presents an approach to solve an optimal path planning problem for a swarm of drones. We optimize and improve information retrieval in area exploration within applications such a ‘Search and Rescue’-missions or reconnaissance missions. For this, dynamic programming has been used as a solving approach for a optimization problem. Different scenarios have been examined for two types of system, a single-agent system and a multi-agent system. First, there have been restrictions on the agents movement in a grid map and for that, optimal paths have been computed for both systems. Thereafter, two different solving approaches within dynamic programming have been tested and compared. The greedy approach which is a standard use where each agent computes the most optimal path from its own perspective and a simultaneous solving approach where the agents compute the most optimal paths according to all agents perspective. The simultaneous solving approach performed better than the greedy approach, which was expected since it is a more swarm optimal approach. However, it has a higher computational complexity which grows exponentially unlike to the greedy approach. Lastly, we discuss the case when the agents are allowed to move in all directions to optimize the information retrieval for the swarm. Here, dynamic programming turns out to have limitations for our use and purpose. For future work, a suggestion is to model the problem with multiple objective functions instead of one as has been done in this thesis. Also, it would be interesting trying another solving method for the problem. To this, I give example of two methods that would be interesting to compare, using model predictive control or a machine learning-based solution such as reinforcement learning. / Denna avhandling presenterar ett tillvägagångssätt för att lösa ett optimalt ruttplanerings problem för en drönarsvärm. Vi optimerar och förbättrar informationsinhämtningen i områdesutforskning inom applikationer som ’Search and Rescue’-uppdrag eller spaningsuppdrag. För detta har dynamisk programmering använts som en lösningsmetod till optimeringsproblem. Olika scenarier har undersökts för två typer av system, ett en-agent system och ett fler-agent system. Först har agenterna varit begränsade hur de har fått röra sig i en rutnätskarta och för det fallet har optimala vägar beräknats för båda systemen. Därefter har två olika lösningssätt inom dynamisk programmering testats och jämförts. Det giriga tillvägagångssättet som är en standardanvändning där varje agent beräknar den mest optimala vägen ur sitt eget perspektiv och en simultan lösningsmetod där agenterna beräknar de mest optimala vägarna enligt alla agenters perspektiv. Den simultana lösningsstrategin presterade bättre än den giriga, vilket var väntat eftersom det är ett mer svärmoptimalt tillvägagångssätt. Den har dock en högre beräkningskomplexitet som växer exponentiellt jämfört med den giriga metoden. Till sist diskuterar vi fallet då agenterna får röra sig i alla riktningar för att optimera informationssökningen för svärmen. Här visar sig dynamisk programmering ha begränsningar för våran användning och syfte. För framtida arbete är ett förslag att modellera problemet med flera mål funktioner istället för en som har gjorts i denna avhandling. Det skulle också vara intressant att prova ett annat lösningssätt för problemet. Till detta ger jag exempel på två metoder som skulle vara intressanta att jämföra, genom att använda modell prediktiv styrning eller en maskininlärningsbaserad lösning såsom förstärkande inlärning.

As an attempt to steer away from developing an autonomous robot with complex centralised intelligence, this thesis proposes an intelligent environment infrastructure where intelligences are distributed in the environment through collaborative vision sensors mounted in a physical architecture, forming a wireless sensor network, to enable the navigation of unintelligent robots within that physical architecture. The aim is to avoid the bottleneck of centralised robot intelligence that hinders the application and exploitation of autonomous robot. A bio-mimetic snake algorithm is proposed to coordinate the distributed vision sensors for the generation of a collision free Reference-snake (R-snake) path during the path planning process. By following the R-snake path, a novel Accompanied snake (A-snake) method that complies with the robot's nonholonomic constraints for trajectory generation and motion control is introduced to generate real time robot motion commands to navigate the robot from its current position to the target position. A rolling window optimisation mechanism subject to control input saturation constraints is carried out for time-optimal control along the A-snake. A comprehensive simulation software and a practical distributed intelligent environment with vision sensors mounted on a building ceiling are developed. All the algorithms proposed in this thesis are first verified by the simulation and then implemented in the practical intelligent environment. A model car with less on-board intelligence is successfully controlled by the distributed vision sensors and demonstrated superior mobility.

<p>In traffic scene perception for autonomous vehicles, driving videos are available from in-car sensors such as camera and LiDAR for road detection and collision avoidance. There are some existing challenges in computer vision tasks for video processing, including object detection and tracking, semantic segmentation, etc. First, due to that consecutive video frames have a large data redundancy, traditional spatial-to-temporal approach inherently demands huge computational resource. Second, in many real-time scenarios, targets move continuously in the view as data streamed in. To achieve prompt response with minimum latency, an online model to process the streaming data in shift-mode is necessary. Third, in addition to shape-based recognition in spatial space, motion detection also replies on the inherent temporal continuity in videos. While current works either lack long-term memory for reference or consume a huge amount of computation. </p> <p><br></p> <p>The purpose of this work is to achieve strongly temporal-associated sensing results in real-time with minimum memory, which is continually embedded to a pragmatic framework for speed and path planning. It takes a temporal-to-spatial approach to cope with fast moving vehicles in autonomous navigation. It utilizes compact road profiles (RP) and motion profiles (MP) to identify path regions and dynamic objects, which drastically reduces video data to a lower dimension and increases sensing rate. Specifically, we sample one-pixel line at each video frame, the temporal congregation of lines from consecutive frames forms a road profile image; while motion profile consists of the average lines by sampling one-belt pixels at each frame. By applying the dense temporal resolution to compensate the sparse spatial resolution, this method reduces 3D streaming data into 2D image layout. Based on RP and MP under various weather conditions, there have three main tasks being conducted to contribute the knowledge domain in perception and planning for autonomous driving. </p> <p><br></p> <p>The first application is semantic segmentation of temporal-to-spatial streaming scenes, including recognition of road and roadside, driving events, objects in static or motion. Since the main vision sensing tasks for autonomous driving are identifying road area to follow and locating traffic to avoid collision, this work tackles this problem by using semantic segmentation upon road and motion profiles. Though one-pixel line may not contain sufficient spatial information of road and objects, the consecutive collection of lines as a temporal-spatial image provides intrinsic spatial layout because of the continuous observation and smooth vehicle motion. Moreover, by capturing the trajectory of pedestrians upon their moving legs in motion profile, we can robustly distinguish pedestrian in motion against smooth background. The experimental results of streaming data collected from various sensors including camera and LiDAR demonstrate that, in the reduced temporal-to-spatial space, an effective recognition of driving scene can be learned through Semantic Segmentation.</p> <p><br></p> <p>The second contribution of this work is that it accommodates standard semantic segmentation to sequential semantic segmentation network (SE3), which is implemented as a new benchmark for image and video segmentation. As most state-of-the-art methods are greedy for accuracy by designing complex structures at expense of memory use, which makes trained models heavily depend on GPUs and thus not applicable to real-time inference. Without accuracy loss, this work enables image segmentation at the minimum memory. Specifically, instead of predicting for image patch, SE3 generates output along with line scanning. By pinpointing the memory associated with the input line at each neural layer in the network, it preserves the same receptive field as patch size but saved the computation in the overlapped regions during network shifting. Generally, SE3 applies to most of the current backbone models in image segmentation, and furthers the inference by fusing temporal information without increasing computation complexity for video semantic segmentation. Thus, it achieves 3D association over long-range while under the computation of 2D setting. This will facilitate inference of semantic segmentation on light-weighted devices.</p> <p><br></p> <p>The third application is speed and path planning based on the sensing results from naturalistic driving videos. To avoid collision in a close range and navigate a vehicle in middle and far ranges, several RP/MPs are scanned continuously from different depths for vehicle path planning. The semantic segmentation of RP/MP is further extended to multi-depths for path and speed planning according to the sensed headway and lane position. We conduct experiments on profiles of different sensing depths and build up a smoothly planning framework according to their them. We also build an initial dataset of road and motion profiles with semantic labels from long HD driving videos. The dataset is published as additional contribution to the future work in computer vision and autonomous driving. </p>

Many autonomous robots operating in unknown and unstructured environments rely on building a dense 3D map of it during exploration. What tasks the robot can perform depends on the information stored in this map. Most 3D maps currently in use store information required for robot control and environment reconstruction – is this point in space occupied, or safe to navigate to? To enable more complex tasks additional information is required. We introduce Semantic UFOMap, an open-source octree based mapping framework designed for online use on limited hardware. Capable of real-time fusion and querying of semantic instances into the map – enabling high-level robot tasks and human-robot interaction. The online capabilities are evaluated using ground-truth data, where we show competitive results compared to voxel hashing, with optimizations still available. Additionally, we demonstrate a potential application with a simulated autonomous exploration and object navigation experiment. The evaluation shows that Semantic UFOMap is capable of real-time online performance. Storing semantic information in the map has the potential to open up new autonomous robot applications and yield improvements in existing tasks. / Autonoma robotar som opererar i okända och ostrukturerade mijöer är ofta beroende av att skapa en 3D-karta under utforskning av området. Villka uppgifter roboten kan utföra beror på informationen som finns tillgänglig i kartan. De flesta nuvarande kartor som används sparar information som behövs för säker navigation och miljörekonstruktion – är den här positionen ett hinder, eller är den säker att navigera till? För att möjligjöra mer komplexa uppgifter behöver roboten ha tillgång till ytterligare information. Vi presenterar Semantic UFOMap, ett öppen källkods kartläggnings ramverk för realtids användning på begränsad hårdvara. Genom att klara av realtids integrering och sökning av semantiska instanser i kartan möjliggör ramverket mer komplexa uppgifter och öppnar upp fler användningsområden i människa-robot interaktion. Utvärdering görs med hjälp av inspelad data, vi visar konkurrenskraftiga resultat jämfört med voxel hashning, med optimering fortfarande tillgänglig. Ett användningsområde demonstreras med ett simulerat autonomt utforsknings och objektnavigerings experiment. Utvärderingen visar att Semantic UFOMap klarar av realtids applikationer. Att spara semantisk information i kartan har potential att öppna upp för nya användningsområden inom robotik och leda till förbättringar i befintliga uppgifter.

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<p dir="ltr">Path-tracking control is an integral part of motion planning in autonomous vehicles, in which the vehicle's lateral and longitudinal positions are controlled by a control system that will provide acceleration and steering angle commands to ensure accurate tracking of longitudinal and lateral movements in reference to a pre-defined trajectory. Extensive research has been conducted to address the growing need for efficient algorithms in this area. In this dissertation, a scenario and machine learning-based data-driven control approach is proposed for a path-tracking controller. Firstly, a Deep Reinforcement Learning model is developed to facilitate the control of longitudinal speed. A Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient algorithm is employed as the primary algorithm in training the reinforcement learning model. The main objective of this model is to maintain a safe distance from a lead vehicle (if present) or track a velocity set by the driver. Secondly, a lateral steering controller is developed using Neural Networks to control the steering angle of the vehicle with the main goal of following a reference trajectory. Then, a path-planning algorithm is developed using a hybrid A* planner. Finally, the longitudinal and lateral control models are coupled together to obtain a complete path-tracking controller that follows a path generated by the hybrid A* algorithm at a wide range of vehicle speeds. The state-of-the-art path-tracking controller is also built using Model Predictive Control and Stanley control to evaluate the performance of the proposed model. The results showed the effectiveness of both proposed models in the same scenario, in terms of velocity error, lateral yaw angle error, and lateral distance error. The results from the simulation show that the developed hybrid A* algorithm has good performance in comparison to the state-of-the-art path planning algorithms.</p>

The research on autonomous vehicles, and more specifically cooperation between autonomous vehicles, has become a prominent research field during the last cou- ple of decades. One example is the combination of an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) together with an unmanned ground vehicle (UGV). The benefits of this are that the two vehicles complement each other, where the UAV provides an aerial view and can reach areas where a ground vehicle can not. Furthermore, since the UAV has a limited range, the UGV can then serve as transport and recharge sta- tion for the UAV. This master thesis studies how model predictive control (MPC) can be used to land a UAV on a moving UGV.  A linear MPC is chosen, since previous work using this has shown promising results. The UAV is chosen to be controlled using commands in pitch, roll and climbing rate. The MPC is designed as a decoupled controller, with a separate horizontal and vertical controller. This allows for a spatial constraint to be im- plemented, which constrains the UAV from entering ground level before arriving above the UGV. It also constrains the UAV from potentially hitting protruding ob- jects on the UGV. The horizontal controller uses a simple planner, which guides the UAV to land on the UGV from behind.  The MPC is evaluated using a additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) sen- sor error model with zero mean. The scenario used is that the UAV starts 50 m from the UGV, and the UGV starts driving in a given direction turning randomly. The MPC lands successfully in 100 % of the simulations for a wide range of tun- ings. The MPC maintains the same landing statistics with a delay in the sensor information of up to 500 ms. The AWGN could be increased while maintaining successful landings, however with significantly more retakes and longer landing times. Lower AWGN variance only slightly improves performance, suggesting that the MPC is quite robust towards high variance in the state estimation.  The MPC is also compared to a PID controller. The MPC has significantly shorter landing times. The PID has a more oscillatory control signal, however, the PID has a lower variance in landing positions, but a slightly less centered mean on the UGV. The overall results show that an MPC can be used to achieve a flexible controller that can be tuned and reformulated to fit the situation, and performs as good or better compared to a PID controller.  The hardware tests show promising results for the implementation of the MPC. The controller is not tuned and no system identification is done specifi- cally for the physical UAV, suggesting that the controller is robust for varying settings. Even though the UAV never lands on the UGV, the visual behavior and control signal plots suggest that it would be able to land. However, these tests are performed using global navigation satellite system state estimation on a sta- tionary UGV, therefore further tests need to be performed in more challenging scenarios.

<p>This thesis presents a computational model of the surgical stitching tasks and a path planning algorithm for robotic assisted stitching. The overall goal of the research is to enable surgical robots to perform automatic suturing. Suturing comprises several distinct steps, one of them is the stitching. During stitching, reaching the desired exit point is difficult because it must be accomplished without direct visual feedback. Moreover, the stitching is a time consuming procedure repeated multiple times during suturing. Therefore, it would be desirable to enhance the surgical robots with the ability of performing automatic suturing. The focus of this work is on the automation of the stitching task. The thesis presents a model based path planning algorithm for the autonomous stitching. The method uses a nonlinear model for the curved needle - soft tissue interaction. The tissue is modeled as a deformable object using continuum mechanics tools. This thesis uses a mesh free deformable tissue model namely, Reproducing Kernel Particle Method (RKPM). RKPM was chosen as it has been proven to accurately handle large deformation and requires no re-meshing algorithms. This method has the potential to be more realistic in modeling various material characteristics by using appropriate strain energy functions. The stitching task is simulated using a constrained deformable model; the deformable tissue is constrained by the interaction with the curved needle. The stitching model was used for needle trajectory path planning during stitching. This new path planning algorithm for the robotic stitching was developed, implemented, and evaluated. Several simulations and experiments were conducted. The first group of simulations comprised random insertions from different insertion points without planning to assess the modeling method and the trajectory of the needle inside the tissue. Then the parameters of the simulations were set according to the measured experimental parameters. The proposed path planning method was tested using a surgical ETHICON needle of type SH 1=2 Circle with the radius of 8:88mm attached to a robotic manipulator. The needle was held by a grasper which is attached to the robotic arm. The experimental results illustrate that the path planned curved needle insertions are fifty percent more accurate than the unplanned ones. The results also show that this open loop approach is sensitive to model parameters.</p> / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

<p dir="ltr">The use of autonomous vehicles, such as Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs), Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs), and Unmanned Surface Vessels (USVs), has globally increased in various applications. Their rising popularity and high accessibility have also increased the use of UASs in criminal or hazardous actions.</p><p dir="ltr">It is beneficial to rapidly compute possible surveillance system evasive paths to evaluate the effectiveness of a given sensor deployment scheme. To find these evasive trajectories, we assume full knowledge of the current and future state of the surveillance system. This assumption allows the defender to identify worst-case trajectories to counteract. The surveillance system path planning presented in this work can be leveraged for game theoretic sensor deployment.</p><p dir="ltr">A sensor deployment scheme determines the overall surveillance efficiency. Through redeployment after each assessment, it aims to approach an equilibrium that maximizes defense capabilities. Therefore, a method of evaluation that models mobile, directional sensors is demanded.</p><p dir="ltr">In response to this demand, this thesis explores the design of a computationally efficient path-planning algorithm for the space-time domain. The Space-Time Parallel RRT* (STP-RRT*) algorithm obtains multiple goal candidates, drawn from a uniform distribution over the time horizon. A set of parallel RRT* trees is simultaneously populated by each goal candidate. By leveraging a connect heuristic from RRT-Connect, parallel goal trees converge to an RRT* tree populated from a start point. This simultaneous tree growth structure returns a computation complexity of O(N log(N)), where N is the number of random samples.</p><p dir="ltr">Due to its low complexity, the STP-RRT* algorithm is suitable to be used as an evaluation metric that computes the cost of the infiltration path of a malicious autonomous system to assess the performance of the deployment layout. The feedback assessment can be used for the surveillance system redeployment to strengthen the vulnerability.</p><p dir="ltr">To identify potential and existing bottlenecks in the algorithm, a computation complexity analysis is conducted, and complexity reduction techniques are employed. Given that surveillance system characteristics are known, 1-dimensional and 2-dimensional environments are generated where positions and surveillance patterns of stationary and dynamic obstacles are randomly selected. In each randomized environment, the STP-RRT*, RRT*, and ST-RRT* are evaluated by comparing success rate, computation time, tree size, and normalized cost through 100-trial Monte Carlo simulations. Under the provided conditions, the proposed STP-RRT* algorithm outperforms two other algorithms with an improved mean success rate and reduced mean computation time by 10.02% and 12.88%, respectively, while maintaining a similar cost level, showing its potential application in surveillance-evasive path-planning problems for surveillance deployment evaluation. Finally, we integrate our algorithm with Nav2, an open-source navigation stack for various robotics applications, including UAV, UGV, and USV. We demonstrate its effectiveness via software-in-the-loop (SiTL) experiments utilizing open-source autopilot software.</p>