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The survival of all organisms depends on their ability to perform certain enzymatic activities and the ability to construct certain structures. In prokaryotes, enzymes are required for the final reactions of peptidoglycan (PG) synthesis, the structural element of the bacterial cell wall. These proteins, known as penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), are identified through the presence of conserved motifs within their functional domains. The Class A high-molecular weight PBPs are bifunctional, performing the penicillin-sensitive transpeptidase activity and the glycosyl transferase (GT) activity required for the polymerization of the glycan strands. The Class A PBPs in Bacillus subtilis are PBP1, PBP4, PBP2c, and PBP2d (YwheE) and they are encoded by ponA, pbpD, pbpF, and pbpG (ywhE), respectively. These proteins appear to be somewhat functionally redundant because removal of one or more does not cause any noticeable change in phenotype. However, the loss of PBP1 has previously been demonstrated in B. subtilis to cause a decreased growth rate and changes in morphology of vegetative cells, both of which are increased upon the additional loss of PBP4. Furthermore, the loss of sporulation-expressed Class A PBPs, PBP2c and 2d, causes a 10,000-fold decrease in the production of heat resistant spores. This double mutant is shown to have changes in the structural parameters of cortex PG that appear minor when compared to other strains, but are coupled with a large defect on the deposition of cortex PG, apparently from the synthesis of an abnormal germ cell wall. The Class A PBPs are believed to be the only proteins capable of performing the GT activity and it is therefore believed that cell viability requires the presence of at least one functional Class A PBP. This requirement has been demonstrated in other organisms, but a B. subtilis strain lacking all Class A PBPs is viable. The phenotypical changes seen in the PBP1 mutant are exacerbated in this strain. The GT activity remaining in this strain is sensitive to the antibiotic moenomycin in vitro whereas it appears resistant in vivo. Identification of the protein(s) performing this novel GT activity will rely on the demonstration of the GT activity in vitro. / Ph. D.

Performance of a three-phase fluidized-bed biofilm fermenter system, which is used for the production of a secondary metabolite, is analyzed through computer simulation techniques. Penicillin fermentation was chosen for the model system. From the steady-state analysis, it was found that a complete-mixed contacting pattern is superior to a plug flow pattern in terms of productivity, since less inhibitory effect of the substrate is pronounced in that configuration. Optimum biofilm thickness for the fermenter system was found to be a function of various operating parameters, and should be determined from information on the interactions between fermenter productivity and the operating conditions. The dynamic analysis has shown that for a given constant oxygen transfer rate in bulk phase, there exist operating conditions optimal for maximizing the volumetric productivity of the fermenter system. When a constant oxygen transfer rate with a k.e.a of 300 hr 1 was used with a complete-mixed contacting pattern, the optimum inlet substrate con- centration and mean residence time were found to be 20 (g glucose/liter) and 10 (hours), respectively. Production phase could be extended by increasing the substrate concentration in the feed stream, but the optimum increasing rate and initiation time of increase are functions of other operating parameters, such as initial inlet substrate concentration, mean residence time, and oxygen transfer rate in the fermentor. An increasing rate of 0.6 g glucose/liter/hr with the initiation time t 0 = 51 was found to be the optimal, for the operating conditions found in the dynamic analysis. The result has also shown that a high total biomass concentration and a high oxygen transfer rate in the fermentor are the most important factors to achieve a high productivity. / Ph. D.

Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) are required in the synthesis of the cell wall of bacteria. In Bacillus subtilis, PBPs play important roles in the life cycle, including both vegetative growth and sporulation, and contribute to the formation of the different structures of vegetative cell wall and spore cortex. The B. subtilis genome sequencing project revealed there were two uncharacterized genes, ykuA and yrrR, with extensive sequence similarity to class B PBPs. These two genes are renamed and referred to henceforth as pbpH and pbpI, respectively. A sequence alignment of the predicted product of pbpH against the microbial protein database demonstrated that the most similar protein in B. subtilis is PBP2A and in E. coli is PBP2. This suggested that PbpH belongs to a group of the genes required for maintaining the rod shape of the cell. Study of a pbpH-lacZ fusion showed that pbpH was expressed weakly during vegetative growth and the expression reached the highest level at the transition from exponential phase to stationary phase. The combination of a pbpA deletion and the pbpH deletion was lethal and double mutant strains lacking pbpH and pbpC or pbpI (also named yrrR) were viable. The viable mutants were indistinguishable from the wild-type except that the vegetative PG of the pbpC pbpH strain had a slightly slightly lower amount of disaccharide tetrapeptide with 1 amidation and higher amount of disaccharide tripeptide tetrapeptide with 2 amidations when compared to others strains. This suggests that PbpC (PBP3) is involved in vegetative PG synthesis but only affects the PG structure with a very low efficiency. A pbpA pbpH double mutant containing a xylose-regulated pbpH gene inserted into the chromosome at the amyE locus was constructed. Depletion of PbpH resulted in an arrest in cell growth and a dramatic morphological change in both vegetative cells and outgrowing spores. Vegetative cells lacking pbpA and pbpH expression swelled and cell elongation was arrested, leading to the formation of pleiomorphic spherical cells and eventual lysis. In these cells, cell septations were randomly localized, cell walls and septa were thicker than those seen in wild type cells, and the average cell width and volume were larger than those of cells expressing pbpA or pbpH. The vegetative PG had an increased abundance of one unidentified muropeptide. Spores produced by the pbpA pbpH double mutant were able to initiate germination but the transition of the oval-shaped spores to rod-shape cells was blocked. The outgrowing cells were spherical, gradually enlarged, and eventually lysed. Outgrowth of these spores in the presence of xylose led to the formation of helical cells. Thus, PbpH is apparently required for maintenance of cell shape, specifically for cell elongation. PbpH and PBP2a play a redundant role homologous to that of PBP2 in E. coli. A sequence alignment of the predicted product of pbpI against the microbial protein database demonstrated that the most similar protein in B. subtilis is SpoVD and in E. coli is PBP3. This suggested that PbpI belongs to the group of the genes required for synthesis of the spore or septum PG. PbpI was identified using radio-labeled penicillin and found to run underneath PBP4 on SDS-PAGE. PbpI is therefore renamed PBP4b. Study of a pbpI-lacZ fusion showed that pbpI was expressed predominantly during early sporulation. A putative sigma F recognition site is present in the region upstream of pbpI and studies using mutant strains lacking sporulation-specific sigma factors demonstrated that the expression of pbpI is mainly dependent on sigma factor F. A pbpI single mutant, a pbpI pbpG double mutant, and a pbpI pbpF double mutant were indistinguishable from the wild-type. The sporulation defect of a pbpI pbpF pbpG triple mutant was indistinguishable from that of a pbpF pbpG double mutant. Structure parameters of the forespore PG in a pbpI spoVD strain are similar to that of a spoVD strain. These results indicate that PBP4b plays a unknown redundant role. / Master of Science

Penicillin-binding proteins (PBP's) are membrane-associated enzymes involved in the polymerization of peptidoglycan. PBP's are divided into three classes based upon their molecular weights and functional domains. Gene expression is regulated in the two differentiated cells in Bacillus subtilis, the mother cell and the forespore, by coordinated expression of different sigma factors that recognize specific promoters in each compartment. The functional and compartmental specificity of individual penicillin-binding proteins from the different classes of PBP's were examined during sporulation in B. subtilis. Analyses of three class A high molecular weight PBP's indicated that pbpF and pbpG must be expressed in the forespore to carry out their specific role during spore peptidoglycan synthesis. Expressing pbpD in either the forespore or the mother cell could not complement for the loss of pbpF and pbpG, suggesting that there must be additional sequence information in PBP2c and PBP2d that allows them to carry out their specific role during germ cell wall synthesis. Analyses of a low molecular weight PBP, PBP5*, suggested that expressing dacB in either the mother cell or in the forespore could regulate the level of spore peptidoglycan cross-linking to what is typical of wild type spore peptidoglycan. / Master of Science

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:55:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2455.pdf: 1413452 bytes, checksum: 0d85e80e19b01ab27cd6e9dd30beb3b9 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-04-02 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / The industrial production of 6-APA includes: (1) cultivation of Penicillium chrysogenum; (2) extraction with organic solvents, (3) crystallization; (4) penicillin hydrolysis by immobilized penicillin acylase; (5) extraction of phenyl acetic acid (AFA); (6) precipitation of 6-APA at its isoelectric point ( pH ~ 3,6). The scientific community and industry have interest in reducing the number of process steps required for 6-APA production. In this thesis a new method for 6-APA production is presented. In this process, the simultaneous production and hydrolysis of penicillin was carried out. The 6-APA was extracted from culture broth using ionic adsorbent. To demonstrate the technical viability of the process a suitable biocatalysts to perform the hydrolysis of penicillin in the complex media has been developed. The enzymatic extract, containing PGA was partially purified by affinity adsorption on agarose-tryptophan, it was necessary to prepare the biocatalyst. The apparent purification factor obtained was 4,5 and purified PGA was immobilized on agaroseglyoxil by multipoint covalent attachment. The biocatalysts obtained show stability under conditions of sterilization and application in bioreactor. However, their mechanical stability under vigorous conditions of agitation used in stirred tank bioreactors was not satisfactory. Three strategies were used to avoid fragmentation of the biocatalyst. The first strategy was to involve the impellers with a helicoidal structure. In this system the biocatalyst was maintained under agitation in external bulk of the apparatus. In the second strategy, the biocatalyst was introduced into the bioreactor as the biomass density reached a maximum, in this case, the cultivation was carried out under constant agitation speed (300 rpm). An airlift bioreactor was used as third strategy to maintain the pellet structure. These systems were efficient in increasing medium agitation without destroying the pellets. Complete hydrolysis of penicillin (30 g / L) was obtained after five days of cultivation and extraction of 6-APA on ionic exchanger was investigated. The extraction of 6-APA by ionic interaction using chitosan modified with glutaraldehyde and arginine is a good method for recovery it. However, optimization in this method is necessary to achieve the recovery of 6-APA at satisfactory levels for the pharmaceutical industry. The new method for production of 6-APA shows that is possible to eliminate the use of organic solvents and to reduce the number of process steps. / A produção industrial de ácido 6-aminopenicilânico (6-APA) inclui etapas de cultivo de Penicillium chrysogenum, extração com solvente orgânico, cristalização, hidrólise enzimática e precipitação. O interesse industrial e científico em reduzir o número de etapas deste processo tem motivado pesquisadores a buscar processos alternativos para obtenção de 6-APA. Neste trabalho, um novo processo é apresentado para a produção de 6-APA, cujas inovações envolvem a hidrólise de penicilina durante o cultivo de P. chrysogenum, a recirculação de ácido fenilacético (AFA) e extração de 6-APA ao final do cultivo utilizando adsorvente iônico. Para atender aos requerimentos do novo processo, foi desenvolvido um biocatalisador para atuar no complexo meio de cultivo. O preparo deste biocatalisador exigiu o uso de extrato enzimático purificado e uma metodologia para purificação de penicilina G acilase (PGA) foi investigada. Um fator de purificação aparente de 4,5 vezes foi obtido e a enzima foi ligada a agarose utilizando a técnica de imobilização covalente multipontual. O biocatalisador obtido apresentou boa estabilidade química em condições de esterilização e aplicação em biorreator. Entretanto, sua estabilidade mecânica sob condições rigorosas de agitação em biorreatores tipo tanque agitado e aerado não foram satisfatórias. Para solucionar este problema três estratégias foram avaliadas: (1) utilizando-se uma peça em forma de hélice envolvendo os impelidores, (2) adicionando-se o biocatalisador ao biorreator após a concentração de células atingir seu valor máximo e utilizando velocidade de agitação constante de 300 rpm, (3) usando um biorreator tipo air lift . As três estratégias permitiram manter a integridade do biocatallisador. Hidrólise completa de penicilina (30 g/L) foi obtida em 120 h de cultivo e a extração de 6-APA em coluna de troca iônica foi estudada. O método de extração de 6-APA através de interação iônica utilizando quitosana-arginina apresentou resultados promissores, entretanto, um aperfeiçoamento do método ainda faz-se necessário para atingir a recuperação de 6-APA em níveis satisfatórios para a indústria farmacêutica. Os resultados obtidos indicam que é possível eliminar o uso de solventes orgânicos na produção de 6-APA, além disso, a redução no número de etapas torna este processo mais simples e conseqüentemente reduz o tempo de produção e custo do produto final. Portanto, o processo desenvolvido neste trabalho é promissor para a aplicação na indústria farmacêutica.

Today, the availability of methods for the activity-preserving and cost-efficient downstream processing of enzymes forms a major bottleneck to the use of these valuable tools in technical processes. A promising technology appears to be foam fractionation, which utilizes the adsorption of proteins at a gas–liquid interface. However, the employment of surfactants and the dependency of the applicability on individual properties of the target molecules are considerable drawbacks. Here, we demonstrate that a reversible fusion of the large, surface-active protein Ranaspumin-2 (Rsn-2) to a β-lactamase (Bla) enabled both surfactant-free formation of a stable foam and directed enrichment of the enzyme by the foaming. At the same time, Bla maintained 70% of its catalytic activity, which was in stark contrast to the enzyme without fusion to Rsn-2. Rsn-2 predominantly mediated adsorption. Comparable results were obtained after fusion to the structurally more complex penicillin G acylase (PGA) as the target enzyme. The results indicate that using a surface-active protein as a fusion tag might be the clue to the establishment of foam fractionation as a general method for enzyme downstream processing.

Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae est un bacille Gram-négatif de la famille des Pasteurellaceae. A. pleuropneumoniae est l'agent étiologique de la pleuropneumonie porcine, une maladie hautement contagieuse et endémique qui cause encore à ce jour d’énormes pertes économiques dans le monde de l’industrie porcine. La pathogenèsedes infections à A. pleuropneumoniae implique plusieurs facteurs de virulence de la bactérie dont les principaux sont les lipopolysaccharides (LPS) et la capsule polysaccharidique (CPS). Ces derniers sont impliqués dans l'adhérence d’A. pleuropneumoniae. Très récemment, il a été démontré qu’A. pleuropneumoniae était capable de produire, sous certaines conditions un biofilm riche en poly- N-acétyl-D-glucosamine (PGA). Cependant, le rôle de cette structure dans la pathogenèse ainsi que les facteurs intervenant dans sa formation et ses signaux déclencheurs sont peu connus à ce jour. Dans cette étude, nous avons démontré que l’antigène O du LPS joue un rôle important dans la formation d’un biofilm mature par A. pleuropneumoniae que ce soit dans un modèle statique ou dans un modèle dynamique en flux, le «drip flow reactor», plus représentatif de l’environnement pulmonaire. Alors que l’absence de la capsule ou du noyau oligosaccharidique du LPS ne semble pas affecter la formation du biofilm, le défaut de formation du biofilm chez le mutant antigène O semble être lié à un problème de production de PGA. En effet, des tests d’immunodétection du PGA associé aux bactéries, à l’aide d’anticorps spécifiques, et les études d’expression du PGA démontrent que le mutant antigène O produit moins de polysaccharide. De plus, les gènes codant pour le système de stress exocytoplasmique CpxRA semblent être moins exprimés chez le mutant antigène O. I L’expression du système CpxRA a également été étudiée lors de l’exposition de souches faiblement productrices de biofilm à des doses sous inhibitrices de pénicilline G (sous-CMI de PG). L’expression des gènes cpxR et cpxA ainsi que d’un gène codant pour la biosynthèse du PGA est augmentée après exposition à des doses sous-CMI de PG. Cette augmentation est suivie d’une augmentation de la capacité des souches étudiées à former un biofilm ainsi que d’une modification de la composition de la matrice extracellulaire. Ces résultats suggèrent que des doses sous-CMI de PG semblent agir comme signaux activateurs de la formation de biofilm chez A. pleuropneumoniae. Finalement, des expériences visant à établir l’implication du biofilm dans l’échappement d’A. pleuropneumoniae au système immunitaire ont démontré que les bactéries du biofilm sont moins susceptibles d’activer des cellules immunitaires que les bactéries planctoniques. À l’aide de la spectrométrie de masse, nous avons démontré une distribution différente des structures du lipide A du LPS entre les bactéries planctoniques et ceux du biofilm. Ces modifications structurelles au niveau du lipide A pourraient expliquer, du moins en partie, cette diminution de la réponse inflammatoire suite à l’exposition des macrophages aux bactéries du biofilm d’A. pleuropneumoniae. Au cours de ce projet, nous avons ainsi pu identifier de nouveaux facteurs importants pour la formation du biofilm d’A. pleuropneumoniae nous permettant de mieux comprendre les mécanismes de formation du biofilm ainsi que son implication dans la pathogénicité. / Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae is a Gram-negative bacterium belonging to the Pasteurellaceae family and the causative agent of porcine pleuropneumonia, a highly contagious disease that causes important economic losses to the swine industry worldwide. Several virulence factors of A. pleuropneumoniae have been identified. These factors include the Apx toxins, iron uptake systems and surface polysaccharides. Surface polysaccharides including lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and capsular polysaccharides (CPS) are implicated in the adhesion of A. pleuropneumoniae. Recent literature indicates that A. pleuropneumoniae has the ability to rapidly form a biofilm rich in poly-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (PGA). However, the role of the biofilm in the pathogenesis as well as factors and signals involved in are little known to date. In this study, we demonstrated that the LPS O antigen plays an important role in the biofilm formation by A. pleuropneumoniae whether in a static model or a dynamic model under continuous flow, the "drip flow reactor" which is more representative of the lung environment. While truncation of the LPS core oligosaccharide or the absence of CPS did not have any effect, absence of O antigen markedly reduced the ability of A. pleuropneumoniae serotype 1 to form a mature biofilm. This finding was linked for the O-antigen mutant to a reduced pgaA expression and, consequently, a reduced PGA production. Indeed, compared to the parental or other strains, the biofilm of the O-antigen mutant was dramatically reduced and it had less cell-associated PGA. Real-time PCR analyses revealed a significant reduction in the level of pgaA which encodes for biosynthesis of PGA. Interestingly, the O-antigen mutant also exhibited reduced expression of stress extracytoplasmic CpxRA system. Expression of CpxRA system was also investigated during the exposure of field isolates of A. pleuropneumoniae to sub-minimal inhibitory concentrations of penicillin G (sub-MICs of PG). III Surprisingly, cpxR, cpxA and pgaA expression was increased after exposure to sub-MICs of PG. The up-regulation of these genes was followed by an increase of the capacity of the studied strains to form a biofilm as well as a change in the composition of the induced biofilm extracellular matrix. These results suggest that sub-MICs of PG seem to act as activators signal towards biofilms of A. pleuropneumoniae. Finally, experiments to establish the involvement of the biofilm in the immune evasion of A. pleuropneumoniae have shown that biofilm cells have weaker ability to stimulate innate immune cells compared to planktonic bacteria. Using mass spectrometry, we demonstrated a different distribution of structures of lipid A of LPS between planktonic bacteria and those of the biofilm. These structural changes in the lipid A could explain, at least in part, the reduction of the inflammatory response following exposure of macrophages to A. pleuropneumoniae biofilm cells compared to their planktonic counterparts. During this project, we were able to identify new factors important for biofilm formation of A. pleuropneumoniae allowing us to better understand the biofilm formation and its involvement in pathogenicity.

Bushnell General Military Hospital was an Army World War II hospital in Brigham City, Utah from August 1942 to June 1946. It specialized in treating amputations, maxillofacial surgery, neuropsychiatric conditions, and tropical diseases. It was also one of the first hospitals to experimentally use penicillin. Bushnell was a regional facility for wounded solders from the Mountain States that provided quality medical care to patients. The community of Brigham City and the citizens of other Northern Utah communities were an integral part of the success of Bushnell. Citizens donated time, supplies, and money to support the facility and to assist in the care and rehabilitation of injured GIs. Celebrities also visited Bushnell to promote morale, and some disabled Americans assisted injured patients. The hospital staff, along with Northern Utahns, played an important role in helping to rehabilitate and reintroduce injured soldiers into society. Brigham City was also effected by Bushnell Hospital. One major problem was a shortage of housing in Brigham City, which led citizens to rent to family members of patients in private homes. Another was infrastructure needed to support the hospital. However, the benefits mostly outweighed the problems. The city and surrounding communities benefited from the job growth at Bushnell and in Brigham. Downtown businesses received additional revenue from patrons. Because the hospital came to Brigham City, some citizens also met Japanese Americans and German and Italian POWs in addition to those connected to Bushnell. This led Brigham citizens to develop friendships with people they might have not met otherwise. When the war ended, the subsequent closure of Bushnell General Military Hospital brought these benefits to an end, and Brigham City and other Northern Utahn communities hastened to find a new occupant for the hospital facility to ensure jobs. In 1950, it became the Intermountain Indian School. The school closed in 1984, and now businesses and homes occupy the site.

Les Penicillin-Binding Proteins (PBP) sont des enzymes intervenant dans les étapes finales de la synthèse de la paroi bactérienne et sont les cibles des antibiotiques de la famille des β-lactamines. Dans les souches cliniques de Streptococcus pneumoniae résistantes aux β-lactamines, les PBPs ont de nombreuses mutations qui ont pour effet une diminution d'affinité de ces enzymes pour les antibiotiques. Il y a en moyenne 40 substitutions dans le domaine transpeptidase des deux acteurs majeurs de la résistance PBP2x et PBP1a.<br />Des études précédentes ont décrit le rôle de quatre mutations de PBP2x et de trois de PBP1a, mais celles-ci ne sont responsables que d'une partie de la résistance. Il n'y a très probablement qu'un nombre restreint de mutations responsables de la perte d'affinité des PBPs pour les β-lactamines ayant pour conséquence une augmentation du niveau de résistance.<br />Pour identifier toutes les mutations impliquées, une série de protocoles automatisés permettant de faire de la mutagénèse dirigée, de l'expression, de la purification et de la caractérisation fonctionnelle d'enzymes en utilisant des robots de types manipulateurs de liquides ont été développés. L'application de cette méthode nous a permis de réaliser une caractérisation exhaustive de plus de 40 mutations de PBP2x de la souche clinique<br />résistante 5204. Cette étude a abouti à l'identification de toutes les substitutions clés ainsi qu'à l'élucidation d'un nouveau mécanisme moléculaire de baisse d'affinité de PBP2x pour les β-lactamines. De plus, une étude fonctionnelle et phénotypique de la résistance impliquant PBP1a a été réalisée.<br />Ce travail apporte une vue globale des mécanismes moléculaires de la résistance de S. pneumoniae aux β-<br />lactamines impliquant les PBPs en utilisant une méthode exhaustive originale.