Streptococcus equi is the causative agent of strangles, a prevalent and highly contagious disease of horses. Despite the animal suffering and economic burden associated with strangles, little is known about the molecular basis of S. equi virulence. Here we have investigated the contributions of a specific lipoprotein and the general lipoprotein processing pathway to the abilities of S. equi to colonize equine epithelial tissues in vitro and to cause disease in both a mouse model and the natural host in vivo. Colonization of air interface organ cultures after they were inoculated with a mutant strain deficient in the maturase lipoprotein (prtM138-213, with a deletion of nucleotides 138 to 213) was significantly less than that for cultures infected with wild-type S. equi strain 4047 or a mutant strain that was unable to lipidate preprolipoproteins (lgt190-685). Moreover, mucus production was significantly greater in both wild-type-infected and lgt190-685-infected organ cultures. Both mutants were significantly attenuated compared with the wild-type strain in a mouse model of strangles, although 2 of 30 mice infected with the lgt190-685 mutant did still exhibit signs of disease. In contrast, only the prtM138-213 mutant was significantly attenuated in a pony infection study, with 0 of 5 infected ponies exhibiting pathological signs of strangles compared with 4 of 4 infected with the wild-type and 3 of 5 infected with the lgt190-685 mutant. We believe that this is the first study to evaluate the contribution of lipoproteins to the virulence of a gram-positive pathogen in its natural host. These data suggest that the PrtM lipoprotein is a potential vaccine candidate, and further investigation of its activity and its substrate(s) are warranted.

Two areas of particular importance in prostate cancer progression are primary tumour development and metastasis. These processes involve a number of physiological events, the mediators of which are still being discovered and characterised. Serine proteases have been shown to play a major role in cancer invasion and metastasis. The recently discovered phenomenon of their activation of a receptor family known as the protease activated receptors (PARs) has extended their physiological role to that of signaling molecule. Several serine proteases are expressed by malignant prostate cancer cells, including members of the kallikreinrelated peptidase (KLK) serine protease family, and increasingly these are being shown to be associated with prostate cancer progression. KLK4 is highly expressed in the prostate and expression levels increase during prostate cancer progression. Critically, recent studies have implicated KLK4 in processes associated with cancer. For example, the ectopic over-expression of KLK4 in prostate cancer cell lines results in an increased ability of these cells to form colonies, proliferate and migrate. In addition, it has been demonstrated that KLK4 is a potential mediator of cellular interactions between prostate cancer cells and osteoblasts (bone forming cells). The ability of KLK4 to influence cellular behaviour is believed to be through the selective cleavage of specific substrates. Identification of relevant in vivo substrates of KLK4 is critical to understanding the pathophysiological roles of this enzyme. Significantly, recent reports have demonstrated that several members of the KLK family are able to activate PARs. The PARs are relatively new members of the seven transmembrane domain containing G protein coupled receptor (GPCR) family. PARs are activated through proteolytic cleavage of their N-terminus by serine proteases, the resulting nascent N-terminal binds intramolecularly to initiate receptor activation. PARs are involved in a number of patho-physiological processes, including vascular repair and inflammation, and a growing body of evidence suggests roles in cancer. While expression of PAR family members has been documented in several types of cancers, including prostate, the role of these GPCRs in prostate cancer development and progression is yet to be examined. Interestingly, several studies have suggested potential roles in cellular invasion through the induction of cytoskeletal reorganisation and expression of basement membrane-degrading enzymes. Accordingly, this program of research focussed on the activation of the PARs by the prostate cancer associated enzyme KLK4, cellular processing of activated PARs and the expression pattern of receptor and agonist in prostate cancer. For these studies KLK4 was purified from the conditioned media of stably transfected Sf9 insect cells expressing a construct containing the complete human KLK4 coding sequence in frame with a V5 epitope and poly-histidine encoding sequences. The first aspect of this study was the further characterisation of this recombinant zymogen form of KLK4. The recombinant KLK4 zymogen was demonstrated to be activatable by the metalloendopeptidase thermolysin and amino terminal sequencing indicated that thermolysin activated KLK4 had the predicted N-terminus of mature active KLK4 (31IINED). Critically, removal of the pro-region successfully generated a catalytically active enzyme, with comparable activity to a previously published recombinant KLK4 produced from S2 insect cells. The second aspect of this study was the activation of the PARs by KLK4 and the initiation of signal transduction. This study demonstrated that KLK4 can activate PAR-1 and PAR-2 to mobilise intracellular Ca2+, but failed to activate PAR-4. Further, KLK4 activated PAR-1 and PAR-2 over distinct concentration ranges, with KLK4 activation and mobilisation of Ca2+ demonstrating higher efficacy through PAR-2. Thus, the remainder of this study focussed on PAR-2. KLK4 was demonstrated to directly cleave a synthetic peptide that mimicked the PAR-2 Nterminal activation sequence. Further, KLK4 mediated Ca2+ mobilisation through PAR-2 was accompanied by the initiation of the extra-cellular regulated kinase (ERK) cascade. The specificity of intracellular signaling mediated through PAR-2 by KLK4 activation was demonstrated by siRNA mediated protein depletion, with a reduction in PAR-2 protein levels correlating to a reduction in KLK4 mediated Ca2+mobilisation and ERK phosphorylation. The third aspect of this study examined cellular processing of KLK4 activated PAR- 2 in a prostate cancer cell line. PAR-2 was demonstrated to be expressed by five prostate derived cell lines including the prostate cancer cell line PC-3. It was also demonstrated by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy analyses that activation of PC-3 cell surface PAR-2 by KLK4 leads to internalisation of this receptor in a time dependent manner. Critically, in vivo relevance of the interaction between KLK4 and PAR-2 was established by the observation of the co-expression of receptor and agonist in primary prostate cancer and prostate cancer bone lesion samples by immunohistochemical analysis. Based on the results of this study a number of exciting future studies have been proposed, including, delineating differences in KLK4 cellular signaling via PAR-1 and PAR-2 and the role of PAR-1 and PAR-2 activation by KLK4 in prostate cancer cells and bone cells in prostate cancer progression.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / CHAPTER II: The snake venom is composed by a diversity of biomolecules with many actions on physiological processes. The serine peptidases are a group of proteases present in the constitution of the venom, capable of interfering on several points of hemostasis. Some serine peptidases has thrombin-like activity, what makes them targets on the development of therapeutics agentes on the treatment of many hemostatic disorders. In this study, a recombinant thrombin-like serine peptidase called rBpSP-II was obtained from the cDNA of the venom gland of the snake Bothrops pauloensis and biochemically characterized. The cDNA correspondent to rBpSP-II was cloned on the pPICZαA vector and inserted on the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris KM71H for the heterologous expression. This enzyme showed single band when analised on SDS-PAGE with approximated molecular mass of 44,5 kDa under reducing conditions. The enzyme rBpSP-II showed clotting activity on bovine plasma and proteolytic activity on fibrinogen, cleaving exclusively the Aα chain. The evaluation of rBpSP-II activity on chromogenic substrates showed that the enzyme has thrombin-like activity due to its capacity to hydrolyze the thrombin substrate. / CAPÍTULO II: A peçonha de serpente é composta por uma diversidade de biomoléculas com inúmeras ações sobre os processos fisiológicos. As serinoproteases são um grupo de proteases presentes na constituição da peçonha, capazes de interferir em diversos pontos da hemostasia. Algumas serinoproteases possuem atividade semelhante à trombina, o que as tornam alvos de interesse no desenvolvimento de agentes terapêuticos no tratamento de desordens hemostáticas. Neste estudo, uma serinoprotease thrombin-like recombinante denominada rBpSP-II foi obtida a partir do cDNA da glândula da peçonha da serpente Bothrops pauloensis e caracterizada bioquimicamente. O cDNA correspondente à rBpSP-II foi clonado no vetor pPICZαA e inserido na levedura metilotrófica Pichia pastoris KM71H para a realização da expressão heteróloga. Esta enzima apresentou banda única quando analisada em SDS-PAGE com massa molecular aproximada de 44.5 kDa sob condições redutoras. A rBpSP-II apresentou atividade coagulante sobre plasma bovino e atividade proteolítica sobre o fibrinogênio, clivando preferencialmente a cadeia Aα. A avaliação da atividade da rBpSP-II sobre substratos cromogênicos demonstrou que a enzima possui atividade thrombin-like devido a sua capacidade de hidrolisar o substrato da trombina. / Mestre em Genética e Bioquímica

O diabetes mellitus do tipo 1 (DM1) é uma doença autoimune caracterizada pela destruição seletiva de células pancreáticas produtoras de insulina. Existem diversas formas de tratamento do DM1, tais como administração de insulina, imunossupressores, transplantes de pâncreas ou de ilhotas pancreáticas, porém todos se mostram ineficientes em algum aspecto. Recentemente, uma nova classe de medicamentos, os inibidores da enzima dipeptidil peptidase 4 (iDPP-4), demonstrou eficiência terapêutica e segurança no tratamento de pacientes com diabetes mellitus do tipo 2 devido ao aumento do hormônio peptídeo-1 semelhante ao glucagon (GLP-1, do inglês glucagon-like peptide-1). Além disso, o uso de inibidores de DPP-4 em modelos experimentais de DM1 demonstrou proteção das células pancreáticas contra apoptose, estimulação de neogênese de ilhotas pancreáticas e melhora do controle homeostático da glicose. Esse presente projeto teve como objetivo avaliar o perfil imunológico e endocrinológico da administração do inibidor de DPP-4 (MK0431) em DM1 experimental quimicamente induzido por estreptozotocina em camundongos C57Bl/6. Os animais diabéticos foram tratados com ração controle ou ração contendo inibidor de DPP-4 (4g MK0431/Kg de ração) ad libitum durante 30 e 90 dias. Durante o tratamento os animais tiveram glicemia, peso e teste de tolerância oral à glicose avaliados. Ao final do tratamento, os animais foram eutanasiados e o sangue, baço, timo, linfonodos pancreáticos e pâncreas foram coletados. Após 30 dias de tratamento com inibidor, foi observado um aumento do hormônio GLP-1 no soro, além de um padrão imunológico favorável. Dentre os mecanismos imunológicos, foi possível observar um aumento de células T reguladoras (CD4+CD25+Foxp3+) no baço e uma diminuição da citocina IFN- no homogenato pancreático. Após 90 dias de tratamento com inibidor, também foi detectado um aumento de insulina e GLP-1 séricos e uma diminuição nos níveis glicêmicos dos animais tratados. Observou-se uma redução no padrão inflamatório no microambiente pancreático, caracterizado pela diminuição das citocinas TNF- e IFN- no homogenato pancreático e por uma redução da freqüência de macrófagos CD11b+ nos linfonodos pancreáticos. Os resultados obtidos neste projeto contribuíram para validar a eficácia terapêutica da administração de inibidor de DPP-4 no tratamento do DM1 experimental, bem como os mecanismos imunológicos e endocrinológicos envolvidos. Sem a ocorrência de efeitos tóxicos relevantes, o uso de inibidores de DPP-4 pode se tornar uma alternativa terapêutica para o tratamento do DM1 em humanos, que constitui uma doença crônica associada à baixa qualidade de vida em longo prazo e necessidade de tratamento de alto custo. / Davanso, M.R. Immunoendocrinological analyses after administration of dipeptidyl-peptidase-4 inhibitor on experimental type 1 diabetes. 2012. 105p. Thesis (Masters Degree) School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, 2012. Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (DM1) is an autoimmune disease characterized by the selective destruction of the insulin-producing pancreatic cells. Several forms of treatment for DM1 are current known such as insulin administration, immunosuppressors, pancreas or pancreatic islets transplantation, however, they all are inefficient in some aspect. Recently, a new class of drugs, the dipeptidyl-peptidase-4 inhibitors (iDPP-4) showed therapeutic efficacy and safety in the treatment with type 2 diabetes mellitus patients due to an increase in the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). In addition, the use of DPP-4 inhibitors in experimental models of DM1 has demonstrated a protection of pancreatic cells against apoptosis, stimulation of pancreatic islets neogenesis and improvement in the glucose homeostatic control. This project evaluated the immunological and endocrinological profile of the DPP-4 (MK0431) inhibitor administration in experimental chemically induced DM1 by streptozotocin in C57BI/6 mice. The diabetic animals were treated with either a normal chow diet or diet containing DPP-4 inhibitor (4g MK0431/Kg of diet) ad libitum during 30 and 90 days. During the treatment the animals were evaluated regarding glycemia, weight, and oral glucose tolerance test. At the end of the treatment, the animals were killed and the blood, spleen, thymus, pancreatic lymph nodes and pancreas were collected. After 30 days of treatment with inhibitor, it was observed an increase in the hormone GLP-1 in the serum, besides a favorable immunological pattern. Among the immunologic mechanisms, it was possible to observe an increase in the regulator T cells (CD4+CD25+Foxp3+) of the spleen and a decrease in the cytokine IFN- in the pancreatic homogenate. After 90 days of treatment with inhibitor, it was also noticed an increase in the insulin and serum GLP-1 levels as well as a decrease in the glycemic levels in the treated animals. It was observed a reduction in the inflammatory pattern in the pancreatic microenvironment characterized by a decrease in the cytokines TNF- and IFN- in the pancreatic homogenate and by a reduction in the frequency of CD11b+ macrophages in the pancreatic lymph nodes. The results obtained in this project contributed to validate the therapeutic efficacy of the DPP-4 inhibitor administration in the treatment of experimental DM1, as well as the immunological and endocrinological mechanisms involved. Without the occurrence of relevant toxic effects, the use of DPP-4 inhibitors may become a therapeutic alternative for the treatment of DM1 in humans, which constitutes a chronic disease associated to low life quality and need for high cost treatment.

Equistatin from the sea anemone Actinia equina contains a protein domain Eqd2 which inhibits aspartic peptidases and has not been characterized in detail. Recombinant Eqd2 was produced in the yeast expression system, and a protocol for its chromatographic purification was designed. The inhibitory specificity of Eqd2 was determined using a fluorescence inhibition assay, showing that Eqd2 is a highly selective inhibitor of cathepsin D-like and pepsin-like aspartic peptidases of family A1. Furthermore, size exclusion chromatography was used to analyze the Eqd2-peptidase complex and Eqd2 oligomerization in solution. Initial screening of crystallization conditions for Eqd2 was performed towards its structural analysis. This work provides important new information about Eqd2 as a unique type of natural inhibitors of aspartic peptidases. Its interaction mechanism can be exploited in the development of synthetic mimetics for regulation of medically important peptidases. (In Czech) Key words: peptidase inhibitors, proteolytic enzymes, activity and inhibition of enzymes, recombinant expression, protein purification, protein crystallization, equistatin

This study focuses on the recombinant cysteine peptidases - cathepsin B originating in the bird schistosome Trichobilharzia regenti that is unique across the whole family for its ability to migrate through the nerve tissue to the final localization. For invasion, migration, degradation of nutritional proteins and/or evasion of host immune responses, schistosome employs peptidases. This study follows the research done by researchers of Department of parasitology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Charles University. The main goal of this study was to deepen the characteristics of recombinant cathepsins B originating in T. regenti. In T. regenti, two cysteine peptidases - cathepsins B1 (TrCB1) and B2 (TrCB2) - have been previously characterized. TrCB1 is located in the gut of schistosomula and involved in digestion. TrCB2 occurs in post-acetabular penetration glands of cercariae and probably facilitates penetration. The recombinant pro-cathepsin B (isoforms TrCB1.1, TrCB1.4 and also TrCB2) were expressed in Pichia pastoris yeast system. An attempt was made to produce in P. pastoris the recombinant isoform TrCB1.6, in which the active site cysteine is substituted by glycine. While TrCB2 underwent self-processing in the expression medium, TrCB1.1 and TrC1.4 zymogens were effectively activated only after the...

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A metformina é a droga de escolha no tratamento inicial do diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (DM2). Não existe consenso na literatura sobre qual seria a segunda melhor opção terapêutica após a falência desta em longo prazo. Objetivo: avaliar a eficácia em longo prazo de gliflozinas e gliptinas após a falência do tratamento primário com metformina no DM2. Material e métodos: foi realizada uma revisão sistemática para o maior tempo de tratamento nas bases de dados bases Embase, Pubmed (via Medline), Lilacs e Cochrane Library e metanálise em rede com as sulfoniluréias (glimepirida e glipizida) como meta comparador. Desfechos: eficácia da medicação (valor final da HbA1c e porcentagem de pacientes com HbA1c < 7%), variação de peso e frequência de pacientes com hipoglicemia. Resultados: O maior tempo de segmento foi de quatro anos. Foram selecionados um artigo com empagliflozina, um artigo com dapagliflozina e um artigo com saxagliptina com dados faltantes. Após um ano de tratamento, mais de 50% dos pacientes estavam com HbA1c > 7%. O perfil de eficácia em quatro anos da empagliflozina (23%) foi melhor que da dapagliflozina (5%) e saxagliptina (7%), porém com valores de HbA1c não estatisticamente significantes (7,4 e 7,3% entre as gliflozinas), sem dados para a saxagliptina. Entretanto, a empagliflozina foi superior à glimepirida no período de quatro anos (diferença média padronizada/DMP: 0,40, intervalo de confiança/IC95%: 0,23- 0,56). A variação de peso permaneceu estável após um ano de tratamento, com vantagem em quatro anos para a empa (DMP: 1,56, IC95%: 1,23- 1,88). A frequência de pacientes com hipoglicemia não diferiu entre empagliflozina e dapagliflozina (razão de chances: 1,53, IC95%: 0,80- 2,91) e foi significativamente menor do que em relação às sulfoniluréias. Conclusões: a falência da segunda terapia com gliflozinas ocorre em menos de um ano de tratamento ( > 50% dos pacientes com HbA1c > 7%). A empagliflozina obteve um controle glicêmico melhor em relação às sulfoniluréias, porém semelhante à dapagliflozina. A perda de peso foi mantida por quatro anos, com superioridade para empagliflozina. Houve uma baixa frequência de hipoglicemia nas gliflozinas em comparação com as sulfoniluréias. Mais estudos são necessários para avaliar a eficácia de gliptinas e gliflozinas em longo prazo, após a falência terapêutica com metformina / Metformin is the first-choice treatment in people with type 2 diabetes (TD2). There is no consensus in the medical literature about which drug would be a second-best option of treatment in the case of metformin failure in long-term. Objective: to assess the long-term efficacy of gliflozins and gliptins once metformin has failed as the primary treatment for TD2. Materials and methods: a systematic review was performed considering the longest period found in Embase, Pubmed (via Medline), Lilacs and Cochrane Library databases and also network meta-analyses using sulfonylureas (glimepiride and glipizide) as a meta comparator. Clinical outcomes where efficacy of medical treatment (final value of HbA1c and percentage of patients with HbA1c < 7%), weight variation and frequency of patients with hypoglycemia. Results: the longest period of the segment was 4 years. It was selected 1 article on empagliflozin, 1 article on dapagliflozin, and 1 article on saxagliptin with missing data. After one year of treatment, over 50% of the patients presented HbA1c > 7%. Efficacy rate in 4 years of empagliflozin (23%) was better than dapagliflozin (5%) and saxagliptin (7%), however presenting statistically non-significant values for HbA1c (7.4 and 7.3% between gliflozins), and missing data for the saxaglifozin. Nonetheless, empagliflozin performed better than glimepiride in the 4-year period (standardized mean difference SMD 0.4, confidence interval CI 95% 0.23 to 0.56). Weight variation remained stable after one year of treatment, presenting empagliflozin better results in the 4-year period (SMD 1.56, CI 95% 1.23 to 1.88). The frequency of patients with hyperglycemia did not vary for empagliflozin and dapagliflozin (odds ratio 1.53, CI 95% 0.8 to 2.91), and it was significantly lower when compared to the sulfonylureas. Conclusions: the failure of the secondary treatment using gliflozins occurs in less than one year of treatment (less than 50% of the patients presenting HbA1c > 7 %). Empagliflozin offered a better glycemic control compared to the sulfonylureas, but similar to dapagliflozin. The weight loss was maintained for 4 years, being empagliflozin the one with better results. There was a low frequency of hypoglycemia for the gliflozins when compared to the sulfonylureas. Further studies are required to evaluate the efficacy of gliptins and gliflozins in the long-term after metformin failure

A metformina é a droga de escolha no tratamento inicial do diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (DM2). Não existe consenso na literatura sobre qual seria a segunda melhor opção terapêutica após a falência desta em longo prazo. Objetivo: avaliar a eficácia em longo prazo de gliflozinas e gliptinas após a falência do tratamento primário com metformina no DM2. Material e métodos: foi realizada uma revisão sistemática para o maior tempo de tratamento nas bases de dados bases Embase, Pubmed (via Medline), Lilacs e Cochrane Library e metanálise em rede com as sulfoniluréias (glimepirida e glipizida) como meta comparador. Desfechos: eficácia da medicação (valor final da HbA1c e porcentagem de pacientes com HbA1c < 7%), variação de peso e frequência de pacientes com hipoglicemia. Resultados: O maior tempo de segmento foi de quatro anos. Foram selecionados um artigo com empagliflozina, um artigo com dapagliflozina e um artigo com saxagliptina com dados faltantes. Após um ano de tratamento, mais de 50% dos pacientes estavam com HbA1c > 7%. O perfil de eficácia em quatro anos da empagliflozina (23%) foi melhor que da dapagliflozina (5%) e saxagliptina (7%), porém com valores de HbA1c não estatisticamente significantes (7,4 e 7,3% entre as gliflozinas), sem dados para a saxagliptina. Entretanto, a empagliflozina foi superior à glimepirida no período de quatro anos (diferença média padronizada/DMP: 0,40, intervalo de confiança/IC95%: 0,23- 0,56). A variação de peso permaneceu estável após um ano de tratamento, com vantagem em quatro anos para a empa (DMP: 1,56, IC95%: 1,23- 1,88). A frequência de pacientes com hipoglicemia não diferiu entre empagliflozina e dapagliflozina (razão de chances: 1,53, IC95%: 0,80- 2,91) e foi significativamente menor do que em relação às sulfoniluréias. Conclusões: a falência da segunda terapia com gliflozinas ocorre em menos de um ano de tratamento ( > 50% dos pacientes com HbA1c > 7%). A empagliflozina obteve um controle glicêmico melhor em relação às sulfoniluréias, porém semelhante à dapagliflozina. A perda de peso foi mantida por quatro anos, com superioridade para empagliflozina. Houve uma baixa frequência de hipoglicemia nas gliflozinas em comparação com as sulfoniluréias. Mais estudos são necessários para avaliar a eficácia de gliptinas e gliflozinas em longo prazo, após a falência terapêutica com metformina / Metformin is the first-choice treatment in people with type 2 diabetes (TD2). There is no consensus in the medical literature about which drug would be a second-best option of treatment in the case of metformin failure in long-term. Objective: to assess the long-term efficacy of gliflozins and gliptins once metformin has failed as the primary treatment for TD2. Materials and methods: a systematic review was performed considering the longest period found in Embase, Pubmed (via Medline), Lilacs and Cochrane Library databases and also network meta-analyses using sulfonylureas (glimepiride and glipizide) as a meta comparator. Clinical outcomes where efficacy of medical treatment (final value of HbA1c and percentage of patients with HbA1c < 7%), weight variation and frequency of patients with hypoglycemia. Results: the longest period of the segment was 4 years. It was selected 1 article on empagliflozin, 1 article on dapagliflozin, and 1 article on saxagliptin with missing data. After one year of treatment, over 50% of the patients presented HbA1c > 7%. Efficacy rate in 4 years of empagliflozin (23%) was better than dapagliflozin (5%) and saxagliptin (7%), however presenting statistically non-significant values for HbA1c (7.4 and 7.3% between gliflozins), and missing data for the saxaglifozin. Nonetheless, empagliflozin performed better than glimepiride in the 4-year period (standardized mean difference SMD 0.4, confidence interval CI 95% 0.23 to 0.56). Weight variation remained stable after one year of treatment, presenting empagliflozin better results in the 4-year period (SMD 1.56, CI 95% 1.23 to 1.88). The frequency of patients with hyperglycemia did not vary for empagliflozin and dapagliflozin (odds ratio 1.53, CI 95% 0.8 to 2.91), and it was significantly lower when compared to the sulfonylureas. Conclusions: the failure of the secondary treatment using gliflozins occurs in less than one year of treatment (less than 50% of the patients presenting HbA1c > 7 %). Empagliflozin offered a better glycemic control compared to the sulfonylureas, but similar to dapagliflozin. The weight loss was maintained for 4 years, being empagliflozin the one with better results. There was a low frequency of hypoglycemia for the gliflozins when compared to the sulfonylureas. Further studies are required to evaluate the efficacy of gliptins and gliflozins in the long-term after metformin failure

The biological half-life of several pro-inflammatory mediators involved in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is controlled by molecules exhibiting dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV)-like enzymatic activity (Dipeptidyl peptidase-IV activity and/or structure homologues- DASH). The aim of this thesis was to identify the molecular source of the DPP-IV-like enzymatic activity in the peripheral blood and synovial fluid in patients with rheumatoid arthritis as compared to control patients with osteoarthritis (OA), and to evaluate the association of DPP-IV with the disease activity. We found that the main source of the DPP-IV-like enzyme activity in the plasma and in the synovial fluid in patients with RA is the canonical DPP-IV. DPP-IV-like enzymatic activity and canonical DPP-IV were also detected on the cell surface of blood and synovial fluid mononuclear cells. Significantly lower DPP-IV-like enzymatic activity and DPP-IV expression in the synovial fluid mononuclear cells was found in RA as opposed to OA patients. In the synovial fluid of RA patients there was also a negative correlation between the concentration of the pro-inflammatory DPP-IV substrate SDF (stromal cell-derived factor-1 and the proportion of the DPP-IV+ T cells. The blood plasma DPP-IV-like enzymatic activity and...