Understanding how structure and function change across environmental gradients is a fundamental goal of ecology, with important applications in a changing world. In this dissertation, I explore how environmental variations in temperature and precipitation affect three-dimensional canopy structure, and how this, in turn, affects forest function. Characterising how climatic variations affect forest structure and function is particularly important in tropical forests, which are globally important carbon stores that have already shown vulnerability to climate change. The future of tropical forest carbon stocks is highly uncertain, with plant physiological responses representing the largest source of model uncertainties. As such, my dissertation research comprises empirical investigations into how tropical forests will respond to high temperatures and drought. Firstly, I examine tropical forest response to high temperature by conducting a comparison of natural forest sites and a tropical forest mesocosm using eddy-covariance data. I present evidence that high temperature declines in tropical forest photosynthesis are not due to direct temperature effects (i.e., that cause damage to the photosynthetic machinery), but instead are predominantly due to indirect temperature effects that result from concurrent increases in vapour pressure deficit (VPD). While both mechanisms reduce photosynthesis, the impact of increased VPD under future climate may be partly mitigated by enhanced water-use efficiency associated with rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations, suggesting that tropical forests may have opportunities for resilience in the face of global warming. The second part of my dissertation research examines how tropical forest canopy structure responds to seasonal dry periods and anomalous droughts on seasonal and interannual timescales, using data from ground-based LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging). I show that total leaf area index (LAI) does not represent the seasonality of forest structure, since the upper and lower canopy levels exhibit divergent seasonal responses. The seasonal pattern of upper canopy LAI shows good agreement with the seasonal pattern of enhanced vegetation index (EVI) measured from satellites, suggesting that satellites are not capturing the response of the lower canopy. These results indicate that smaller trees are responding to seasonal water limitations and larger trees to light availability. I found that the response of canopy structure to anomalous (El Niño-induced) drought was similar to seasonal dry periods, but that the trends in LAI and vertical canopy structure were amplified. In particular, I document a delayed loss of LAI from the upper canopy following extreme drought, which supports the idea that while smaller trees may be more responsive to shorter, less severe dry periods, larger trees are more susceptible to prolonged or more severe droughts. Finally, I combine a long-term ground-based LiDAR dataset with tree inventory data in order to identify the mechanisms (i.e., changes in leaf area and/or woody biomass) of structural changes caused by droughts. I present evidence that loss of lower canopy LAI following an El Niño-induced drought was due to the mortality of small trees, not loss of leaf area, while an increase in LAI in the upper canopy predominantly resulted from plastic leaf area changes. If small trees are susceptible to drought-induced mortality and the incidence of droughts increases, this could prevent the recovery of tropical forests from drought-induced disturbances.

A década de 90 foi caracterizada por uma grande expansão no mercado Brasileiro e mundial de frutas, em especial nas frutas de outono, como o caqui Diospyros kaki L.). Embora a quase totalidade da produção nacional de caqui seja destinada ao mercado interno, o Brasil vem se consolidando nos últimos anos como país exportador dessa fruta para países do continente americano e europeu. Por essa razão, o cultivo dessa fruteira vem se constituindo numa importante atividade agrícola para pequenos produtores no Brasil. O conhecimento da fenologia e de como varia o conteúdo em carboidratos de reserva do caquizeiro em clima tropical é de grande importância para o estudo do desenvolvimento dessa espécie nessas condições. A falta informações dessa natureza para o caquizeiro cultivado no Brasil motivou o presente estudo com a variedade Rama Forte, a mais cultivada e consumida no país. O trabalho conduzido em um pomar localizado na área experimental, setor de horticultura, da escola Superior de Agricultura "Luiz de Queiroz" (ESALQ) em Piracicaba - SP, no período 2002/2003. A fenologia foi caracterizada desde a brotação das gemas até a abscisão foliar. A variação dos teores de carboidratos de reserva em ramos e em raízes é descrita tendo por base os diferentes períodos de coleta de material no campo, e discutidos em função dos estádios fenológicos da planta e das estações do ano. As plantas estudadas passaram pelos estádios de dormência, brotação, elongação, florescimento, frutificação, senescência e abscisão foliar. As curvas de crescimento do fruto exibiram o padrão sigmoidal duplo, sendo que o crescimento em diâmetro se antecipou em relação ao acúmulo de massa. O crescimento do cálice se estabilizou ao final do último estágio de desenvolvimento dos frutos. Da brotação das gemas no final do inverno até a maturação dos frutos no início do outono passaram-se 199 dias. Após o florescimento foram produzidos apenas frutos sem sementes, com duração de 161 dias até a sua maturação. Ocorreram dois picos no abortamento de frutos. Os primeiros sintomas de senescência das folhas foram registrados a partir do último estágio de desenvolvimento dos frutos, dois meses e meio após a formação da copa ter sido concluída. Da brotação das gemas até o completo desfolhamento somaram-se 287 dias no decorrer de toda a primavera, verão e outono. A análise dos teores dos carboidratos de reserva mostrou que ocorreram variações significativas (P ≤0,05) no teor de amido e de açúcares solúveis totais nos órgãos amostrados. O amido se constitui numa importante fonte de material de reserva a ser mobilizada durante o ciclo do caquizeiro. Em relação aos açúcares solúveis totais, o amido mostrou maiores variações significativas, tanto no ramo como na raiz ao longo do período estudado. A recomposição no estoque de carboidratos de reserva nos ramos e nas raízes ocorreu durante o período de atividade fotossintética. / The decade of 90 was characterized by a great expansion in the Brazilian and world-wide market of fruits, in special in the autumn fruits, as persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.). Although almost the totality of the national production of persimmon either destined to the domestic market, Brazil comes if consolidating in the last years as exporting country of this fruit for countries of the American and European continent. Therefore, persimmon crop comes if constituting in an important agricultural activity for small growers in Brazil. The knowledge of the phenology of persimmon tree and how their reserve in carbohydrate content varies in tropical climate is of great importance for the study of persimmon´s tree in these conditions. The lack of information of this nature for the persimmon cultivated in Brazil motivated the present study with the ‘ Rama Forte’ variety, the most cultivated and consumed in the country. The work was lead in an orchard located in the sector of horticulture, in the Escola Superior de Agricultura "Luiz de Queiroz" (ESALQ), in Piracicaba, SP, during 2002/2003 growing cicle. The phenology of tree was characterized from budbreak to leaf fall, and carboydrate reserves in stems and roots was described for different times of plant material collected in the field, and argued based on phenological stages. The mixed buds had passed the stages of dormancy, budbreak, shoot elongation, bloom, fruition, leaf senescence and leaf fall successively. The curves of growth of the fruit had shown the double sigmoidal standard and growth of fruit diameter preceded that of fresh and dry weight. Calyx growth stabilized in the end of the last stage of fruit development. From budbreak, in the end of winter to the maturation of fruits, in the beginning of autumn was recorded 199 days. Only seedless fruits were produced. From flowering to fruit maturity 161 days was registered. Two peaks in the abortion of fruits had occurred. The first symptoms of leaf senescence had been registered from the last stage of fruit development, two months after the canopy have been concluded. From budbreak to the complete leaf fall 287 days was recorded during all the spring, summer and autumn growing seasons. Starch and total soluble sugars content fluctuated in roots and stems throughout (P≤0,05) phenologycal stages of persimmons tree. Starch fluctuations showed to be more prone to significant variations in relation to the total soluble sugars in the stems as in the root. Two peaks of starch depletion was registered. The stem and root tissue started to accumulate starch during the net exporting photoassimilates by leaf photosynthesis. These results indicate that root and stem tissues play a role as a carbohydrate reserve pools to be mobilized for shoot elongation, flowering and for the maintenance of the tree during the lack of photosynthesis activity of persimmon tree.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivos: 1) estudar a fenologia, o crescimento e desenvolvimento de quatro híbridos de milho AG9010, DAS CO32, Exceler e DKB 333B semeados no período da "safrinha" na região de Piracicaba, Estado de São Paulo; 2) calibrar e testar o desempenho do modelo CERES-Maize para simular o desenvolvimento e a produtividade do milho "safrinha" para a mencionada região; 3) aplicar o modelo calibrado e testado para a determinação das épocas de semeadura com menores riscos, para as condições de sequeiro e irrigada, para os quatro híbridos mencionados; 4) aplicar o modelo CERES-Maize para simulações de longo período visando a estimativa da previsão de safra do milho "safrinha" na região de Piracicaba, Estado de São Paulo; 5) verificar a existência de associação entre parâmetros climáticos e o fenômeno do ENOS (El Niño Oscilação Sul) na região de Piracicaba, Estado de São Paulo; 6) analisar a influencia do fenômeno do ENOS na produtividade da cultura do milho "safrinha". Para tanto, três experimentos de campo com quatro híbridos de milho foram conduzidos na Escola Superior de Agricultura "Luiz de Queiroz", Universidade de São Paulo, em Piracicaba, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil, durante os anos de 2001 e 2002. Um experimento foi conduzido no ano 2001 sob condições irrigadas e os outros dois no ano 2002: um sob condições de sequeiro e outro sob irrigação. Todos os experimentos tiveram delineamento de blocos completos ao acaso. Os híbridos de milho utilizados neste estudo foram: AG9010 (ciclo super precoce), DAS CO32 e Exceler (ciclo precoce) e DKB 333B (ciclo normal). As datas de semeadura foram 15 de março para o experimento de 2001 e 13 de março para os experimentos conduzidos em 2002. Os resultados obtidos neste estudo indicaram que o milho "safrinha", sob condições de sequeiro, apresentou em geral, menores valores de IAF, altura de planta e acúmulo de matéria seca do que sob condições de irrigação. A cultura submetida a limitação de água no solo teve uma atividade radicular intensa nas camadas mais profundas do solo, sugerindo que um incremento no comprimento das raízes foi a resposta às deficiências hídricas. O modelo CERES-Maize simulou com adequada precisão a fenologia e o rendimento do milho "safrinha" para as condições de Piracicaba. Em geral, para os dois sistemas de cultivo, sob irrigação e sob sequeiro, quanto mais tardia a semeadura, menor o rendimento do milho "safrinha" simulado para os quatro híbridos. O modelo CERES-Maize mostrou ser uma excelente ferramenta para a previsão do rendimento do milho "safrinha", utilizando-se dados climatológicos combinados aos dados meteorológicos do ano em questão. Com esse procedimento foi possível se obter adequada estimativa do rendimento com 45 dias de antecedência à colheita nos quatro híbridos de milho semeados na "safrinha" em Piracicaba. Os fenômenos "El Niño" e "La Niña" tiveram influência sobre o rendimento do milho "safrinha" em Piracicaba, em decorrência de mudanças nos padrões de precipitação durante os meses de abril e maio. Os rendimentos foram maiores durante os anos de "El Niño" do que em anos de "La Niña", que por sua vez foram superiores aos rendimentos obtidos para os anos neutros. / The objectives of the present work were: 1) to study the phenology and development of four maize hybrids: AG9010, DAS CO32, Exceler and DKB 333B sown off-season in Piracicaba region, State of São Paulo, Brazil; 2) to calibrate and test the CERES-Maize model to estimate the productivity and development for the four maize hybrids sown off-season for the mentioned region; 3) to apply the model for determination of sowing dates with less risk, for irrigated and rainfed conditions, for the four maize studied hybrids; 4) to apply the CERES-Maize model for long term climatic conditions aiming yield forecast; 5) to verify the association between climatic parameter and ENSO phases (El Niño Southern Oscillation) for Piracicaba region; 6) to analyze the influence of ENSO phases in maize productivity. Three field experiments that included four hybrids with different maturity durations were conducted during the autumn and winter growing seasons of 2001 and 2002 at the Escola Superior de Agricultura "Luiz de Queiroz", University of São Paulo, in Piracicaba, SP, Brazil. One experiment was conducted in 2001 under irrigated conditions, and two experiments were conducted in 2002, one under rainfed and another under irrigated conditions. All experiments had a randomized complete block design. The maize hybrids used in this study were: AG9010 (very short season), DAS CO32 and Exceler (short season) and DKB 333B (normal season). The sowing dates were March 15th, for the 2001 experiment, and March 13th, for the 2002 experiments. CERES-Maize model was calibrated and tested with data obtained in these experiments. The results suggested that maize sown off-season under rainfed conditions, presented in general, lower values of LAI, plant height and less dry matter accumulation than under irrigated conditions. An increase in root water uptake on deep layers of the soil was evident on maize crop under soil water limitations conditions. The CERES-Maize model simulated with accuracy the maize phenology and yield for off-season conditions. In general, for the two cropping systems, irrigated and rainfed, as more delayed the planting date is, less simulate yield for the four hybrids. The CERES-Maize was an excellent tool for maize off-season yield forecast using climatic historic data combined with data from the year of study. This procedure permitted to obtain a good estimation of yield 45 days before harvest for the hybrids sown off-season in Piracicaba. The ENSO phases had influence on maize sown off-season yield, as result of the precipitation patterns during April and May months. The highest yields were simulated for "El Niño" years, being higher than yields for "La Niña" years, which were higher than for neutral years.

No presente trabalho, estudamos uma área de vegetação natural, composta principalmente por cerrado, com 1269 ha, situada no munícipio de Santa Rita do Passa Quatro, estado de São Paulo (21 36-44 S e 47 34-41 W). O levantamento florístico da área foi efetuado em 18 excursões de coleta mensais, com duração de 3 ou 4 dias cada, entre setembro de 1995 e fevereiro de 1997. Em cada uma das formações e fisionomias de cerrado existentes (cerradão, cerrado sensu stricto, campo cerrado, campo úmido, mata ciliar, floresta estacional semidecídua), o material em fase florífera ou frutífera ou de formação de esporos foi coletado e, posteriormente, prensado e identificado em nível específico. Coletamos 1944 exsicatas, representando 499 espécies, 317 gêneros e 107 famílias. As famílias que se destacaram foram: Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae e Rubiaceae. A comparação das formações e fisionomias de cerrado através de índice de similaridade ressaltou a unidade florística do cerrado. Para auxiliar a identificação das espécies coletadas, construimos chaves baseadas em caracteres vegetativos para as formações de cerrado sensu lato, campo úmido, mata ciliar e floresta estacional semidecídua. Para estudar a estrutura da comunidade vegetal, lançamos aleatoriamente parcelas nas fisionomias de cerrado e na floresta estacional semidecídua, cujos tamanhos e critérios de inclusão foram diferentes em função de variações no componente lenhoso. A biomassa, estimada pelo volume cilíndrico total, aumentou do campo cerrado à floresta estacional semidecídua, com valores intermediários no cerrado sensu stricto e no cerradão. O cerrado, em suas três fisionomias, apresentou não só grande diversidade alfa, como também altas diversidades beta e gama. A partir dos dados do levantamento florístico, estudamos as variações fenológicas das espécies, procurando analisá-las como estratégias adaptativas. A proporção de espécies anemo e autocóricas foi maior no componente herbáceo-subarbustivo, ao contrário das zoocóricas, mais freqüentes no componente arbustivo-arbóreo. As espécies arbustivo-arbóreas floresceram principalmente no início da estação chuvosa, enquanto que as herbáceo-subarbustivas produziram flores, de modo geral, apenas no final da estação úmida, após período de acúmulo de carboidratos. A proporção de espécies anemo e autocóricas em frutificação foi maior na estação seca, quando sua dispersão é mais eficiente. Já as espécies zoocóricas frutificaram principalmente durante toda a estação quente e chuvosa, quando seus frutos carnosos podem se manter atraentes por mais tempo. / We studied a natural vegetation area, composed mainly by cerrado, with 1269 ha, located at Santa Rita do Passa Quatro municipality, São Paulo State, southeastern Brazil (21 36-44 S e 47 34-41 W). We carried out a floristic survey in 18 field trips, each one with 3 or 4 days, from September 1995 to February 1997. On each existing vegetation types (three cerrado physiognomies, floodplain grassland, gallery forest, and seasonal semidecidous forest), all vascular plants in reproductive stage were collected and then pressed and identified in species level. A total of 499 species, representing 317 genera and 107 families, was found. The most important families were: Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae and Rubiaceae. The comparison of all vegetation types and cerrado physiognomies through similarity index emphasized the cerrado floristic unity. To help the species identification, we constructed four indented keys based on vegetative characters, one for each vegetation type (cerrado, floodplain grassland, gallery forest, and seasonal semidecidous forest). To study the plant community structure, we placed randomly quadrats in the cerrado physiognomies and in the seasonal semidecidous forest, with different sizes and inclusion criteria according to its woody component. Biomass, estimated by total cylindric volume, increased from campo cerrado to seasonal semidecidous forest, with intermediate values in cerrado sensu stricto and cerradão. Cerrado, on its three physiognomies, showed high alpha diversity as well as beta and gamma ones. Based on the data collected during the floristic survey, we studied the phenological variations, analysing them as adaptive strategies. The ratio of anemo and autochorous species was greater in the herbaceous component. The zoochorous ones, on the other hand, were more frequent in the woody component. The woody species flowered mainly at the beginning of the rainy season, while the herbaceous ones produced flowers generally at the end of that season, after a period of carbohydrate accumulation. The anemo and autochorous species produced fruits principally at the dry season, when its dispersion is more efficient. The zoochorous ones fruited along the whole rainy and warm season, when its fruits become attractive for longer time.

In this study, theoretical and experimental approaches were combined, using Arabidopsis as the studied species. The multi-scale model incorporates the following, existing sub-models: a phenology model that can predict the flowering time of plants grown in the field, a gene circuit of the circadian clock network that regulates flowering through the photoperiod pathway, a process-based model describing carbon assimilation and resource partitioning, and a functional-structural module that determines shoot structure for light interception and root growth. First, the phenology model was examined on its ability to predict the flowering time of field plantings at different sites and seasons in light of the specific meteorological conditions that pertained. This analysis suggested that the synchrony of temperature and light cycles is important in promoting floral initiation. New features were incorporated into the phenology model that improved its predictive accuracy across seasons. Using both lab and field data, this study has revealed an important seasonal effect of night temperatures on flowering time. Further model adjustments to describe phytochrome (phy) mutants supported the findings and implicated phyB in the temporal gating of temperature-induced flowering. The improved phenology model was next linked to the clock gene circuit model. Simulation of clock mutants with different free-running periods highlighted the complex mechanism associated with daylength responses for the induction of flowering. Finally, the carbon assimilation and functional-structural growth modules were integrated to form the multi-component, whole-plant model. The integrated model was successfully validated with experimental data from a few genotypes grown in the laboratory. In conclusion, the model has the ability to predict the flowering time, leaf biomass and ecosystem exchange of plants grown under conditions of varying light intensity, temperature, CO2 level and photoperiod, though extensions of some model components to incorporate more biological details would be relevant. Nevertheless, this meso-scale model creates obvious application routes from molecular and cellular biology to crop improvement and biosphere management. It could provide a framework for whole-organism modelling to help address global issues such as food security and the energy crisis.

There is ample evidence that climate change is impacting on phenology and it has been suggested that this may generate trophic mismatches. A key system for investigating phenology and trophic mismatch occurs in spring in temperate deciduous woodlands, where folivorous caterpillars and their predators, insectivorous passerines, are reliant upon ephemeral resources for reproductive success and survival. However, studies are primarily conducted within single-site, oak- (Quercus sp) dominated woodland and focus on a single caterpillar species, winter moth (Operophtera brumata), despite these passerines being habitat generalists with large geographic ranges. It remains to be seen whether insights gained from these studies can be generalised on the landscape scale across different habitats. In this thesis, I explore the extent to which geographic and habitat variation operates in this system and attempt to expand the system beyond a linear single-species food chain into a more biologically realistic multi-species food web. I also identify the most important environmental factors predicting the phenology of the passerines to allow better predictions of how their phenology could alter under future climate change scenarios. To address these questions, I established a novel 220km transect of Scotland incorporating 40 field sites that vary in elevation and the type of deciduous woodland habitat, monitoring six blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus) nestboxes, tree and invertebrate phenology and abundance, at each site throughout the springs of 2014-16. Firstly, I assess how blue tit occupancy and productivity are affected by the variation in fine-scale woodland habitat, latitude, elevation and prey availability that exists along the transect (Chapter 2). I find that habitat variables strongly affect fledging success but not occupancy or clutch size, whilst occupancy exhibits biogeographic trends, revealing that the relationship between breeding decisions and outcomes differs among habitats and implies that it may be difficult to generalise results from one habitat to others. Next, I aim to identify the environmental aspects which play a role in regulating blue tit reproductive phenology by examining the ability of temperature, tree phenology, invertebrate prey abundance and photoperiod to predict nest initiation and laying dates (Chapter 3). I find that night-time temperature in early spring is the most important predictor of both nest initiation and lay date (slopes ~ -3days/°C) and I suggest that this supports the hypothesis that temperature acts as a constraint on timing rather than a cue. Invertebrate abundance is also a positive correlate of lay date, possibly allowing fine-tuning of timing. This knowledge provides clearer foundations from which to predict future phenological change and possible trophic mismatch in this system. There is the potential that the apparent effect of temperature on blue tit reproductive phenology is indirect and mediated by diet, which is largely undescribed in the period prior to breeding. Therefore, in Chapter 4 I examine how blue tit diet varies across habitat, geography and time, and whether there is a dietary cue utilised to initiate breeding phenology, using data from metabarcoding faeces collected from nestbox-roosting adults in early spring. Geographic variation in diet is substantial, with high site-to-site dietary turnover (β-diversity), as well as high turnover along the elevational and latitudinal gradients studied. Dietary α-diversity (richness) is unaffected by geographical variables, but increases over time, with significant pre-breeding dietary increases in Lepidoptera and Hemiptera signifying a possible cue. In addition, these data provide the most comprehensive next-generation insights into the diet of a wild bird to date and identify 432 prey taxa. Finally, I analyse how biogeographic and habitat variables affect the phenology, abundance and diversity of caterpillars (Chapter 5). Host tree species’ varied significantly in their likelihood of hosting a caterpillar, with oak and willow (Salix sp.) the most likely. Biogeography had less effect on the likelihood of caterpillar occurrence, but elevation delayed peak date by 3.7 days/100m increase. There was also support for the spring caterpillar peak being dominated by a few key species, with over half of all caterpillars identified being of just three of the 62 total species, including winter moth. These findings contribute to understanding how the temporal distribution of caterpillars varies across habitats on the landscape scale. Taken together, the findings of this thesis reveal considerable geographic and habitat variation throughout this system, in both the composition of the food web and the impacts on blue tit productivity, demonstrating why caution must be exercised when extrapolating findings from one location or habitat to others.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:30:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2005-02Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T21:01:43Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 pinto_am_dr_rcla.pdf: 291102 bytes, checksum: fd37e45ac3f35881070a810a19d57f4a (MD5) / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo gerar informações básicas sobre a silvicultura das espécies florestais para possibilitar a implementação de programas de reflorestamento e recuperação de áreas degradadas na região amazônica. Trata-se de um estudo fenológico realizado pelo INPA, Manaus, Amazonas, especificamente pela Coordenação de Pesquisas em Silvicultura Tropical, ao longo de 35 anos. Este estudo analisou duas áreas de floresta amazônica, a Reserva Florestal Ducke (RFD) e a Estação Experimental de Silvicultura Tropical (EEST), no período de 1974 a 2000. O objetivo específico foi comparar os padrões fenológicos nas duas áreas experimentais, verificando sua regularidade e relação com fatores climáticos. As espécies selecionadas foram aquelas indicadas com potencial oleaginoso e ecológico, em avaliações preliminares e que estão sendo observadas para o estudo, a saber: Andiroba - Carapa guianensis Aubl.; Cumaru - Dipteryx odorata (Aubl.) Willd.; Casca preciosa - Aniba canelilla (H.B.K.) Mez e Pau rosa - Aniba rosaeodora Ducke. Foram amostrados 21 indivíduos de A. rosaeodora Ducke na RFD e cinco na EEST, e cinco indivíduos das espécies restantes em cada uma das duas áreas de estudo. Observados mensalmente com auxílio de um binóculo para o registro das fenofases (botões florais, antese, frutos imaturos e maduros). Os padrões fenológicos reprodutivos foram descritos de acordo com sua freqüência... . / This research aims to generate basic information about the silviculture of forest species to make the implementation of reforestation programs and the recovering of degraded areas in the Amazon region possible. This phenological research has been conducted by INPA, specifically by the Tropical Silviculture Research Coordination, over a period of 35 years. This study will analyze two areas in the Amazon Forest, Reserva Florestal Ducke (RFD) and Estação Experimental de Silvicultura Tropical (EEST), in the period between 1974 and 2000. The specific objective is to compare the phenological patterns in both experimental areas, verifying their regularity and relationship with climatic factors. The species selected were those indicated with oily and ecological potential in preliminary evaluations: Andiroba - Carapa guianensis Aubl; Cumaru - Dipteryx odorata (Aubl) Willd; Casca preciosa - Aniba canelilla (H.B.K.) Mez and Pau rosa - Aniba rosaeodora Ducke. It were sampled twentyone individuals of A. rosaeodora Ducke in RFD and five in EEST, and five individuals of the remaining species in each one of the two areas of study. The individuals were monthly observed with the assistance of binoculars to record the phenophases. The phenological patterns will be described with regards to their frequency, regularity and duration. The relations among the phenological data with the climatic variables were made through the non-parametric Spearman linear correlation analyses taking in consideration the climatic monthly mean values. It was observed at EEST, that the flowering of the species studied tend to occur in a period of less precipitation, except for Carapa guianensis that tended to bloom in the transition from dry season to rainy season. Whereas, for Aniba rosaeodora the flowering tended to occur in the rainy epoch and... (Complete abstract, click electronic address below).

Resumo: A dispersão de sementes é uma parte essencial da biologia reprodutiva das plantas, na qual a zoocoria é a principal forma de dispersão em florestas tropicais. Isto revela sua extrema importância para a regeneração e manutenção das florestas, sendo que os marsupiais podem agir como dispersores efetivos de plantas neotropicais através da ingestão de sementes. O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar as espécies de marsupiais ocorrentes e as espécies de plantas utilizadas como recurso em um fragmento de Floresta Estacional Semidecidual, localizado nos arredores do município de Botucatu, SP. O presente estudo também objetivou estudar a viabilidade e o comportamento germinativo das sementes após a passagem pelo sistema digestivo destes animais. Os marsupiais foram capturados de agosto de 2008 a julho de 2009 com armadilhas do tipo alçapão e de interceptação e queda. Suas fezes foram coletadas diretamente das armadilhas, durante o manuseio do animal ou ainda após a manutenção em cativeiro por 24 horas. Depois as amostras fecais foram triadas em laboratório. Foram realizados testes de germinação de sementes com dois tratamentos: (1) sementes retiradas das fezes e (2) sementes retiradas dos frutos maduros. O teste de tetrazólio foi aplicado para verificar a viabilidade das sementes de Piper amalago que não germinaram. Foi caracterizada a fenologia reprodutiva de 14 espécies vegetais utilizadas pelos marsupiais, sendo que quatro estavam presentes nas fezes. O período de maior disponibilidade de frutos prevaleceu dentro da estação chuvosa. Foram encontradas 11 espécies vegetais presentes nas amostras fecais dos marsupiais, sendo parte de plantas pioneiras. O marsupial Didelphis albiventris foi a espécie mais abundante e os frutos mais consumidos por ele foram as piperáceas: Piper hispidinervum (36% das amostras), seguido de Piper aduncum (19%) e Piper amalago (17%) ...(Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Seed dispersal is an essential stage on plant reproductive biology, and zoochory is the main process of dispersion in tropical rain forests. Therefore, seed dispersal is very important to forest conservation and regeneration, and the marsupials may act as seed dispersers of neotropical plants by ingesting seeds. The main goal of this study was to determine the marsupial species as well as their food plants occurring in a semi-deciduous seasonal forest fragment located near the city of Botucatu, SP. This study also investigated seed viability and germination after passage through the marsupial guts. The animals were collected from August to July 2008 by using live and pitfall traps. Their feces were collected from traps, during animal handling or when the animals were kept in captivity for 24 hours. In the laboratory, seeds were removed from feces. Germination tests were carried out following two treatments: (1) seeds from feces and (2) seeds removed from mature fruits. The tetrazolium test was applied on nongerminated seeds of Piper amalago to determine their viability. The reproductive phenology of 14 plant species used by marsupials was also recorded, from which four were observed in the marsupial's feces. Most fruits were available to the marsupials during the rainy season. A total of 11 plant species were found in the feces samples, and some of them was consisted of pioneering plants. Didelphis albiventris was the predominant marsupial species, and fruits of Piper hispidinervum (36%), Piper aduncum (19%) and Piper amalago plants (17%) were preferably consumed. The germination tests were carried out considering those plant species with high abundances on feces: P. aduncum, P. amalago, P. hispidinervum and Psidium guajava. The passage of P. amalago, P. aduncum and P. guajava seeds through the D. albiventris gut did not change the germination percentage when comparing with... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Orientador: Marcelo Nogueira Rossi / Coorientador: Renata Cristina Batista Fonseca / Banca: Cinthia Aguirre Brasileiro / Banca: Gledson Vigiano Bianconi / Mestre

A década de 90 foi caracterizada por uma grande expansão no mercado Brasileiro e mundial de frutas, em especial nas frutas de outono, como o caqui Diospyros kaki L.). Embora a quase totalidade da produção nacional de caqui seja destinada ao mercado interno, o Brasil vem se consolidando nos últimos anos como país exportador dessa fruta para países do continente americano e europeu. Por essa razão, o cultivo dessa fruteira vem se constituindo numa importante atividade agrícola para pequenos produtores no Brasil. O conhecimento da fenologia e de como varia o conteúdo em carboidratos de reserva do caquizeiro em clima tropical é de grande importância para o estudo do desenvolvimento dessa espécie nessas condições. A falta informações dessa natureza para o caquizeiro cultivado no Brasil motivou o presente estudo com a variedade Rama Forte, a mais cultivada e consumida no país. O trabalho conduzido em um pomar localizado na área experimental, setor de horticultura, da escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz” (ESALQ) em Piracicaba – SP, no período 2002/2003. A fenologia foi caracterizada desde a brotação das gemas até a abscisão foliar. A variação dos teores de carboidratos de reserva em ramos e em raízes é descrita tendo por base os diferentes períodos de coleta de material no campo, e discutidos em função dos estádios fenológicos da planta e das estações do ano. As plantas estudadas passaram pelos estádios de dormência, brotação, elongação, florescimento, frutificação, senescência e abscisão foliar. As curvas de crescimento do fruto exibiram o padrão sigmoidal duplo, sendo que o crescimento em diâmetro se antecipou em relação ao acúmulo de massa. O crescimento do cálice se estabilizou ao final do último estágio de desenvolvimento dos frutos. Da brotação das gemas no final do inverno até a maturação dos frutos no início do outono passaram-se 199 dias. Após o florescimento foram produzidos apenas frutos sem sementes, com duração de 161 dias até a sua maturação. Ocorreram dois picos no abortamento de frutos. Os primeiros sintomas de senescência das folhas foram registrados a partir do último estágio de desenvolvimento dos frutos, dois meses e meio após a formação da copa ter sido concluída. Da brotação das gemas até o completo desfolhamento somaram-se 287 dias no decorrer de toda a primavera, verão e outono. A análise dos teores dos carboidratos de reserva mostrou que ocorreram variações significativas (P ≤0,05) no teor de amido e de açúcares solúveis totais nos órgãos amostrados. O amido se constitui numa importante fonte de material de reserva a ser mobilizada durante o ciclo do caquizeiro. Em relação aos açúcares solúveis totais, o amido mostrou maiores variações significativas, tanto no ramo como na raiz ao longo do período estudado. A recomposição no estoque de carboidratos de reserva nos ramos e nas raízes ocorreu durante o período de atividade fotossintética. / The decade of 90 was characterized by a great expansion in the Brazilian and world-wide market of fruits, in special in the autumn fruits, as persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.). Although almost the totality of the national production of persimmon either destined to the domestic market, Brazil comes if consolidating in the last years as exporting country of this fruit for countries of the American and European continent. Therefore, persimmon crop comes if constituting in an important agricultural activity for small growers in Brazil. The knowledge of the phenology of persimmon tree and how their reserve in carbohydrate content varies in tropical climate is of great importance for the study of persimmon´s tree in these conditions. The lack of information of this nature for the persimmon cultivated in Brazil motivated the present study with the ‘ Rama Forte’ variety, the most cultivated and consumed in the country. The work was lead in an orchard located in the sector of horticulture, in the Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz” (ESALQ), in Piracicaba, SP, during 2002/2003 growing cicle. The phenology of tree was characterized from budbreak to leaf fall, and carboydrate reserves in stems and roots was described for different times of plant material collected in the field, and argued based on phenological stages. The mixed buds had passed the stages of dormancy, budbreak, shoot elongation, bloom, fruition, leaf senescence and leaf fall successively. The curves of growth of the fruit had shown the double sigmoidal standard and growth of fruit diameter preceded that of fresh and dry weight. Calyx growth stabilized in the end of the last stage of fruit development. From budbreak, in the end of winter to the maturation of fruits, in the beginning of autumn was recorded 199 days. Only seedless fruits were produced. From flowering to fruit maturity 161 days was registered. Two peaks in the abortion of fruits had occurred. The first symptoms of leaf senescence had been registered from the last stage of fruit development, two months after the canopy have been concluded. From budbreak to the complete leaf fall 287 days was recorded during all the spring, summer and autumn growing seasons. Starch and total soluble sugars content fluctuated in roots and stems throughout (P≤0,05) phenologycal stages of persimmons tree. Starch fluctuations showed to be more prone to significant variations in relation to the total soluble sugars in the stems as in the root. Two peaks of starch depletion was registered. The stem and root tissue started to accumulate starch during the net exporting photoassimilates by leaf photosynthesis. These results indicate that root and stem tissues play a role as a carbohydrate reserve pools to be mobilized for shoot elongation, flowering and for the maintenance of the tree during the lack of photosynthesis activity of persimmon tree.

Rapid climate change is a significant threat to the long-term persistence of native tree populations. Concern has been expressed that tree populations might fail to adapt due to rate of change, insufficient adaptive variation in tree populations and limits to dispersal. In contrast, others have contended that most tree species have high phenotypic plasticity, maintain high levels of within-population genetic variation and exhibit effective gene dispersal capability, all characteristics which should enable an adaptive response. To assess the potential adaptability of tree populations we need to understand their genetic diversity and phenotypic plasticity to build on the currently limited evidence base and guide decisions about seed sourcing for establishment of new woodlands desired to meet ambitious planting targets. Currently the seed sourcing system divides the island in four regions of similar size although it is not based on any genetic or ecological information. We discuss the suitability of this system with the insight of the data collected from native tree populations growing in experimental trials. In this thesis we study genetic diversity and phenotypic plasticity patterns in over 30 native tree populations across all Great Britain for three broadleaved species: ash (Fraxinus excelsior), rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), and silver birch (Betula pendula). To obtain these data we assessed the variation in multiple traits in several common garden experiments for each species, which were grown in contrasting environments. There is a tendency in provenance experiments to consider height as a proxy for fitness. We demonstrate that tree height is not enough to understand tree fitness and its adaptability capacity. We assessed our tree populations for growth (survival, tree height, DBH), stem form (number of forks), leaf phenology (leaf flushing and senescence) and leaf anatomical traits (leaf area, stomatal density and stomatal size).Great Britain has very distinct and heterogeneous environments likely to have given rise to adaptive differentiation. Knowing the geographical pattern of the genetic differences we can see the direction selective pressures have had on each of the traits studied, and we compare differences in patterns across the traits and species. Comparing populations growing in different environments we assessed the variation in phenotypic plasticity by trait and the direction of these plasticity. We found that tree populations across Great Britain are highly genetically variable and show genetic differences which have a geographical pattern, and that the patterns and size of the differences vary by species. Phenotypic plasticity varies across traits and interactions between genotype and environment make plasticity in some traits more unpredictable than others. We conclude that tree populations of ash, rowan and birch are well adapted to the diverse and oceanic climate of Great Britain, and that levels of genetic diversity and phenotypic plasticity provide a high capacity to respond to environmental change.