Rhodococcus equi is a soil-dwelling facultative intracellular pathogen that can infect many mammals, including humans. R. equi is most well known for its ability to cause severe pyogranulomatous disease in foals, primarily involving the lungs although other body systems may also be affected. The disease is endemic on many horse-breeding farms worldwide and poses a severe threat to the horse breeding industry because there is no vaccine available. Current prophylaxis is based on systematic preventative treatments with macrolides combined with rifampicin, which are also used to treat clinical cases of the disease in foals. In this thesis I have used a combination of wet laboratory and bioinformatic approaches to identify the molecular basis of emerging combined resistance to macrolides and rifampicin in R. equi foal isolates from the USA. The genomes of a selection of resistant and susceptible strains from across the USA were sequenced and assembled. Resistance genes were systematically searched by reciprocal best-match BLASTP comparisons to known antibiotic resistance determinants. This led to the discovery of a novel erythromycin ribosomal methylase (erm) gene, erm(46), in all resistant strains. Complementation analysis in a susceptible R. equi strain showed that erm(46) was sufficient to confer resistance to all macrolides, lincosamides, and streptogramin B. The erm(46) gene is carried by an integrative conjugative element (ICE) which is transferable between R. equi strains. The ICE is formed by two distinct parts, a class I integron associated with an IS6100 sequence and the erm(46) determinant carried by a sub-element which contains putative actinobacterial conjugative translocase apparatus and a transposase/integrase. All resistant strains also carry the same non synonymous point mutation in rpoB conferring rifampicin resistance. Thus, these strains are carrying double resistance to the most commonly used antibiotics to treat R. equi worldwide. Phylogenetic analysis based on the core genome demonstrated that all resistant strains are clonal. This indicates that although conjugal acquisition of the erm(46) conjugative element may occur at a high frequency, the need for the concurrent presence of a second rpoB mutation for survival in the macrolide and rifampicin dominated farm environment has effectively selected for the spread of a single clone. In the second section of this work, we sequenced a further 20 R. equi genomes from difference sources (equine, porcine, bovine, human), including representatives of each of the seven major genogroups previously defined in our laboratory based on pulsed field gel electrophoresis. I have used the newly acquired genetic information to study the genome of R. equi and analyse its diversity within and outwith its species group. This enabled us to explore the pan genome and define that R. equi is a genetically well-defined bacterial species. Our results provide definitive evidence that resolves the current dispute over R. equi classification, specifically they do not support the recent proposal (based on classical polyphasic bacterial taxonomical methods) that R. equi should be transferred to a new genus. Our core-genome phylogenomic analyses unambiguously show that the genus Rhodocococcus is monophyletic and that R. equi forms a clade together with the most recently described related environmental species R. defluvii that radiates from within the genus. Together with other shared biological and genetic characteristics, namely the unique niche-adaptive mechanism based on evolutionarily related extrachromosomal replicons, R. equi should be conseidered a bona fide member of the genus Rhodococcus. We also confirm that Rhodococcus spp. and Nocardia spp. are sufficiently distinct to warrant them belonging to different genera. In conclusion, this work used whole genome sequencing to characterize the molecular basis underlying the emergence and clonal spread of multi-resistant R. equi in horse breeding farms in the USA. This work also highlights the limitations of classical taxonomical approaches in bacterial systematics, and illustrates the importance of incorporating modern phylogenomic approaches to understand the evolutionary relationships between bacterial strains and their accurate taxonomic position.

L'acquisition, en laboratoire, des génomes mitochondriaux complets de plusieurs espèces de rongeurs Arvicolinae permet la définition de l'histoire évolutive du groupe dans un cadre évolutif et temporel. Ces relations phylogénétiques sont inférés sur un grand nombre de caractères (16000 pb), grâce à des méthodes d'analyses statistiques novatrices.La base de données moléculaires constituée représente un échantillon de génomes mitochondriaux à évolution dite "rapide", ouvrant des perspectives quant à la description des points chauds mutationnels dans des études de génomique comparative, et permettant d'identifier plus globalement la source de l'hétérogénéité des taux de substitution mitochondriale au sein des génomes mitochondriaux des Mammifères. / Experimental acquisition of complete mitochondrial genome for several Arvicolinae species allows defining evolutionary history of the group in evolutionary and temporal frames. These phylogenetic relationships are inferred on a great number of characters (16000 bp), thanks to innovator statistical analysis methods.Constituted molecular data set represents a sample of "fast evolving" mitochondrial genomes, and allows describing mutational hots spots in comparative genomic studies, and identifying globally the origin of mitochondrial substitution rate heterogeneity detected in Mammalian mitochondrial genomes.

Gracilariaceae is a worldwide distributed family that includes numerous economically important species. Currently, five genera are recognized in the Gracilariaceae: Gracilariophila (parasitic), Curdiea, Melanthalia, Gracilaria, and Gracilariopsis. Some species of Gracilaria were taxonomically transferred to Hydropuntia. However, this genus is quite controversial. High-throughput sequencing (HTS) techniques has led to an increase in studies using complete organellar genomes, which have been used to infer phylogenetic relationships in Rhodophyta and the investigation of other aspects of red algal genomes, including gene synteny and horizontal gene transfers (HGT). HTS also facilitated the search for extrachromosomal plasmids and its influence in the organellar genomes by HGT. We applied HTS to assemble and annotate organellar genomes (mitochondria and chloroplast) from seven species of Gracilariaceae using Illumina HiSeq 2500 platform. We also received raw reads of 31 samples of Gracilariaceae from Dr. Goia Lyra that were analysed and included in our work. We used these data, combined with published genomes, to infer phylogenies and compare the genome architecture of these species representing the main lineages in Gracilariaceae. The mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes were highly conserved in gene synteny among the species, and variation mainly occurred in regions where insertions of plasmid-derived sequences (PDSs) were found, which were similar to known red algae extrachromosomal plasmids. In mitochondrial genomes, the PDS insertions were in two regions where the transcription direction changes: between cob and trnL genes, and trnA and trnN genes. PDS insertions in chloroplast genome were in different positions, but generally found between psdD and rrs genes. The bacterial leuC/leuD operon was found in Gracilaria tenuistipitata, G. chilensis, M. intermedia chloroplasts genomes, and also in G. vermiculophylla extrachromosomal plasmid. Phylogenetic trees show two different origins of leuC/leuD: genes found in chloroplasts and plasmids were close to proteobacteria, and genes encoded in the nucleus are close to Viridiplantae and cyanobacteria. Gracilariaceae may be a good model to study the impact of PDS in genome evolution due to the frequent presence of these sequences inserted in organellar genomes. Our phylogenetic analyses demonstrated similar evolutionary histories between the chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes. However, chloroplast phylogeny was better resolved with full support. Our taxonomical sampling supports the presence of three main lineages: Melanthalia/Curdiea, Gracilariopsis and Gracilaria. Melanthalia intermedia was sister to a monophyletic clade including Gracilaria and Gracilariopsis, which were resolved as monophyletic genera. Furthermore, the characteristics of organellar genome architecture, Gracilariopsis and Gracilaria genera are also supported by the loss of the plastid gene petP in Gracilaria and the rearrangement position of the gene trnH in the mitochondrial genome. Beside this, we found no support for the genus Hydropuntia as originally proposed / A família Gracilariaceae está globalmente distribuída e inclui várias espécies economicamente importantes. Atualmente, cinco gêneros são reconhecidos em Gracilariaceae: Gracilariophila (parasita), Curdiea, Melanthalia, Gracilaria e Gracilariopsis. Algumas espécies de Gracilaria foram taxonomicamente transferidas para Hydropuntia. Entretanto, esse gênero é bastante controverso. Técnicas de sequenciamento de alta performance (HTS) levaram a um aumento de estudos usando genomas organelares completos, que têm sido usados para inferir relações filogenéticas em Rhodophyta e na investigação de outros aspectos dos genomas de algas vermelhas, incluindo sintenia gênica e transferências horizontal de genes (HGT). O HTS também facilitou a busca por plasmídeos extracromossômicos e sua influência nos genomas organelares por HGT. Nós utilizamos HTS para montar e anotar genomas organelares (mitocôndrias e cloroplastos) de sete espécies de Gracilariaceae usando a plataforma Illumina HiSeq 2500 e recebemos sequências de 31 amostras Gracilariaceae da Dr. Goia Lyra que foram montadas, anotadas e incluídas em nossas análises. Utilizamos esses dados, combinados com genomas publicados, para inferir filogenias e comparar a arquitetura do genoma dessas espécies representando as principais linhagens em Gracilariaceae. Os genomas mitocondrial e plastidial são altamente conservados na sintenia gênica e a variação ocorreu principalmente em regiões onde foram encontradas inserções de sequências derivadas de plasmídeos (PDS), similares aos plasmídeos extracromossômicos conhecidos de algas vermelhas. Nos genomas mitocondriais, as inserções de PDS estavam em duas regiões onde a direção da transcrição muda: entre os genes cob e trnL e os genes trnA e trnN. As inserções de PDS no genoma do cloroplasto estavam em posições diferentes, mas geralmente encontradas entre os genes psdD e rrs. O operon bacteriano leu/leuD foi encontrado nos genomas dos cloroplastos de Gracilaria tenuistipitata, G. chilensis, M. intermedia e também no plasmídeo de G. vermiculophylla. As árvores filogenéticas mostram duas origens diferentes de leuC/leuD: os genes encontrados no cloroplasto e no plasmídeo estavam próximos de proteobactérias, e os genes codificados no núcleo estavam próximos de Viridiplantae e cianobactérias. Gracilariaceae pode ser um bom modelo para estudar o impacto de PDS na evolução de genomas devido à presença frequente de inserções PDS em genomas organelares. Nossas análises filogenéticas demonstraram histórias evolutivas similares entre cloroplasto e mitocondria. No entanto, a filogenia de cloroplasto foi melhor resolvida com valores máximos de Bootstrap em todos os ramos. Nossa amostragem taxonômica corrobora a presença de três linhagens principais: Melanthalia/Curdiea, Gracilariopsis e Gracilaria. Melanthalia intermedia aparece como grupo-irmão do clado monofilético incluindo Gracilaria e Gracilariopsis, que foram resolvidos como gêneros monofiléticos. Além disso, baseado nas características da arquitetura do genoma organelar, os gêneros Gracilariopsis e Gracilaria se distinguem pela perda do gene plastidial petP em Gracilaria e pela posição de rearranjo do gene trnH no genoma mitocondrial. Nós não encontramos evidências para a permanencia o gênero Hydropuntia como originalmente proposto

Estudos filogenômicos usando Sequenciamento de Próxima Geração (do inglês, Next Generation Sequencing - NGS) estão se tornando cada vez mais comuns. O uso de marcadores oriundos do sequenciamento de DNA de uma biblioteca genômica reduzida, neste caso ddRADSeq (do inglês, Double Digestion Restriction Site Associated DNA Sequencing), para este fim é promissor, pelo menos considerando sua relação custo-benefício em grandes conjuntos de dados de grupos não-modelo, bem como a representação genômica recuperada. Aqui usamos ddRADSeq para inferir a filogenia em nível de espécie do gênero Cereus (Cactaceae). Esse gênero compreende em cerca de 25 espécies reconhecidas predominantemente sul-americanas distribuídas em quatro subgêneros. Nossa amostra inclui representantes de Cereus, além de espécies dos gêneros próximos, Cipocereus e Praecereus, além de grupos externos. A biblioteca ddRADSeq foi preparada utilizando as enzimas EcoRI e HPAII. Após o controle de qualidade (tamanho e quantificação dos fragmentos), a biblioteca foi sequenciada no Illumina HiSeq 2500. O processamento de bioinformática a partir de arquivos FASTQ incluiu o controle da presença de adaptadores, filtragem por qualidade (softwares FastQC, MultiQC e SeqyClean) e chamada de SNPs (software iPyRAD). Três cenários de permissividade a dados faltantes foram realizados no iPyRAD, recuperando conjuntos de dados com 333 (até 40% de dados perdidos), 1440 (até 60% de dados perdidos) e 6141 (até 80% de dados faltantes) loci. Para cada conjunto de dados, árvores de Máxima Verossimilhança (MV) foram geradas usando duas supermatrizes: SNPs ligados e Loci. Em geral, observamos algumas inconsistências entre as árvores ML geradas em softwares distintos (IQTree e RaxML) ou baseadas no tipo de matriz distinta (SNPs ligados e Loci). Por outro lado, a precisão e a resolução, foram melhoradas usando o maior conjunto de dados (até 80% de dados perdidos). Em geral, apresentamos uma filogenia com resolução inédita para o gênero Cereus, que foi resolvido como um provável grupo monofilético, composto por quatro clados principais e com alto suporte em suas relações internas. Além disso, nossos dados contribuem para agregar informações sobre o debate sobre o aumento de dados faltantes para conduzir a análise filogenética com loci RAD. / Phylogenomics studies using Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) are becoming increasingly common. The use of Double Digest Restriction Site Associated DNA Sequencing (ddRADSeq) markers to this end is promising, at least considering its cost-effectiveness in large datasets of non-model groups as well as the genome-wide representation recovered in the data. Here we used ddRADSeq to infer the species level phylogeny of genus Cereus (Cactaceae). This genus comprises about 25 species recognized predominantly South American species distributed into four subgenera. Our sample includes representatives of Cereus, in addition to species from the closely allied genera Cipocereus and Praecereus, besides outgroups. The ddRADSeq library was prepared using EcoRI and HPAII enzymes. After the quality control (fragments size and quantification) the library was sequenced in Illumina HiSeq 2500. The bioinformatic processing on raw FASTQ files included adapter trimming, quality filtering (FastQC, MultiQC and SeqyClean softwares) and SNPs calling (iPyRAD software). Three scenarios of permissiveness to missing data were carry out in iPyRAD, recovering datasets with 333 (up tp 40% missing data), 1440 (up to 60% missing data) and 6141 (up to 80% missing data) loci. For each dataset, Maximum Likelihood (ML) trees were generated using two supermatrices: SNPs linked and Loci. In general, we observe few inconsistences between ML trees generated in distinct softwares (IQTree and RaxML) or based in distinctive matrix type (SNP linked and Loci). On the other hand, the accuracy and resolution were improved using the larger dataset (up to 80% missing data). Overall, we present a phylogeny with unprecedent resolution for genus Cereus, which was resolved as a likely monophyletic group, composed by four main clades and with high support in their internal relationships. Further, our data contributes to aggregate information on the debate about to increasing missing data to conduct phylogenetic analysis with RAD loci.

Le but de ce doctorat était de comprendre les bases génétiques de la diversification de la pigmentation extra-oculaire chez les embryons des Gerromorphes. La plupart des punaises semi-aquatiques présentent une variabilité de pattern de couleur jaune ou/et rouge dans les pattes et les antennes au stade embryonnaire. La couleur rouge observée dans les appendices étant similaire à celle présente dans les yeux, nous avons émis l'hypothèse que les couleurs extra-oculaires pouvaient être produites par la co-option des voies de synthèse des pigments des yeux. Nous avons d'abord déterminé l'histoire évolutive de ce trait à partir de sa présence ou de son absence dans les embryons de 34 espèces. Grâce à l'analyse génétique par interférence ARN et hybridation in situ, nous avons identifié les voies impliquées dans la pigmentation des yeux et des organes extra-oculaires dans l'espèce Limnogonus franciscanus. Nous avons ensuite testé par interférence ARN et hybridation in situ trois gènes de la voie ptéridine dans cinq autres espèces de Gerromorphes présentant des colorations extra-oculaires différentes. Les résultats suggèrent que la même voie a été recrutée une seule fois pour produire la diversité de pattern. De plus, grâce à une analyse chimique par ultra-chromatographie couplée à de la spectrométrie de masse, nous avons identifié que la xanthopterin et l’erythropterin sont les deux pigments responsables de la couleur chez différentes espèces. Nous nous sommes aussi demandé comment le recrutement d'une seule et même voie conservée pouvait produire une telle diversité de pattern. En utilisant la technologie de transcriptomique du RNA-seq, nous avons identifié 167 facteurs de transcription co-exprimés dans les yeux, les antennes et les pattes des embryons de Limnogonus franciscanus. Ces protéines pourraient intervenir dans la régulation des gènes impliqués dans la formation des patterns de couleur embryonnaire. Nous avons initié un crible ARNi de ces facteurs de transcription. En conclusion, la pigmentation des punaises semi-aquatiques au stade embryonnaire est un bon modèle pour comprendre la co-option des voies génétiques et la question sous-jacente de la façon dont une voie conservée pourrait être réglementée pour produire divers phénotypes. / The principal aim of this doctoral thesis was to understand the genetic basis for the diversification of the extra-ocular pigmentation in Gerromorpha embryos. Most of the semi-aquatic bugs develop a variability of yellow or red colours patterns in legs and antennas during the embryonic stage. Since the red colour in appendages was similar to the one present in eyes, we hypothesized that the extra-ocular colours could be produced by the co-option of the eye pigments biosynthesis pathway. First we inferred the evolutionary history of this trait based on its presence or absence in embryos of 34 species. We found that the ancestral state of the trait in Gerromorpha was yellow and that six independent lineages evolved bright red colour, while two lineages lost the colour. Using RNAi and in situ hybridisation on homologous genes from the pteridine and ommochrome biosynthesis pathways, we described the genetic pathway involved in the production of pigments in eyes and extra-ocular tissues in Limnogonus franciscanus embryos. After that, we performed a screening of three genes from this pathway in five other species with different extra-ocular colours and patterns. We discovered that the same pathway was recruited once to produce the diversity of patterns in Gerromorpha. Furthermore, we identified by UPLC-HRMS that xanthopterin and erythropterin pigments produce the variability of colours and patterns in different species. Our next step aimed to understand how the recruitment of a conserved pathway could produce this striking diversity of colour patterns. Using RNA-Seq technology and bioinformatics tools, we identified 167 transcription factors that are co-expressed in eyes, antennas and legs of embryos in Limnogonus franciscanus. These proteins might be involved in the regulation of genes responsible for the different colour patterns. We have started an RNAi screen of these transcription factors. This project is still ongoing but in this thesis I will present the preliminary results and conclusions.In conclusion, the pigmentation of semi-aquatic bugs during the embryonic stage is a good model to understand the co-option of pre-existing genetic pathways and underlying the question of how a conserved pathway could be regulated to produce diverse morphological phenotypes.

Chez les plantes, la dynamique structurelle et l'évolution concertée des génomes nucléaire et cytoplasmiques restent peu documentées. L'objectif de cette thèse était d'étudier la diversité structurelle et l'évolution des mitogénomes et des plastomes chez les Oleaceae à l'aide d'une approche de phylogénomique. Nous avons d'abord assemblé des mitogénomes à partir de données de séquençage de faible couverture, obtenues à partir de matériel frais et d'herbier. Une grande variation de structure du mitogénome a été observée chez l'olivier, et un gène chimérique potentiellement associé à un type de stérilité mâle a été identifié. Enfin, nous avons étudié l'évolution des plastomes et des gènes mitochondriaux chez les Oleaceae. Une accélération de l'évolution du plastome a été observée dans deux lignées indépendantes. Ce changement de trajectoire évolutive pourrait être la conséquence d'une transmission occasionnelle de plastes par le pollen, modifiant les pressions sélectives sur certains gènes. / In plants, the structural dynamics and concerted evolution of nuclear and cytoplasmic genomes are poorly understood. The objective of this thesis was to study the structural diversity and evolution of mitogenomes and plastomes in the family Oleaceae with a phylogenomic approach. First, we assembled mitogenomes from low-coverage sequencing data obtained from live and herbarium material. Considerable structural variation of mitogenomes was observed in the olive, and a chimeric gene potentially associated to a type of male sterility was detected. Finally, we studied the evolution of plastomes and mitochondrial genes in the Oleaceae. Accelerated evolution of plastomes was observed in two independent lineages. This change of evolutionary rate could be the consequence of an occasional transmission of plastids with pollen, modifying selective pressures on some genes.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis involved the development and application of network approaches for the construction, analysis and visualization of phylogenomic and transcriptomic networks. A co-evolutionary network model of grapevine genes was constructed based on three mechanisms of evolution. The investigation of local neighbourhoods of this network revealed groups of functionally related genes, illustrating that the multi-mechanism evolutionary model was identifying groups of potentially co-evolving genes. An extended network definition, namely 3-way networks, was investigated, in which edges model relationships between triplets of objects. Strategies for weighting and pruning these 3-way networks were developed and applied to a phylogenomic dataset of 211 bacterial genomes. These 3-way bacterial networks were compared to standard 2-way network models constructed from the same dataset. The 3-way networks modelled more complex relationships and revealed relationships which were missed by the two-way network models. Network meta-modelling was explored in which global network and node-bynode network comparison techniques were applied in order to investigate the effect of the similarity metric chosen on the topology of multiple types of networks, including transcriptomic and phylogenomic networks. Two new network comparison techniques were developed, namely PCA of Topology Profiles and Cross-Network Topological Overlap. PCA of Topology Profiles compares networks based on a selection of network topology indices, whereas Cross- Network Topological Overlap compares two networks on a node-by-node level, identifying nodes in two networks with similar neighbourhood topology and thus highlighting areas of the networks with conflicting topologies. These network comparison methods clearly indicated how the similarity metric chosen to weight the edges of the network influences the resulting network topology, consequently influencing the biological interpretation of the networks. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis hou verband met die ontwikkeling en toepassing van netwerk benaderings vir die konstruksie, analise en visualisering van filogenomiese en transkriptomiese netwerke. 'n Mede-evolusionêre netwerk model van wingerdstok gene is gebou, gebaseerd op drie meganismes van evolusie. Die ondersoek van plaaslike omgewings van die netwerk het groepe funksioneel verwante gene aan die lig gebring, wat daarop dui dat die multi-meganisme evolusionêre model groepe van potensieele mede-evolusieerende gene identifiseer. 'n Uitgebreide netwerk definisie, naamliks 3-gang netwerke, is ondersoek, waarin lyne die verhoudings tussen drieling voorwerpe voorstel. Strategieë vir weeg en snoei van hierdie 3-gang netwerke was ontwikkel en op 'n filogenomiese datastel van 211 bakteriële genome toegepas. Hierdie 3-gang bakteriële netwerke is met die standaard 2-gang netwerk modelle wat saamgestel is uit dieselfde datastel vergelyk. Die 3-gang netwerke het meer komplekse verhoudings gemodelleer en het verhoudings openbaar wat deur die tweerigting-netwerk modelle gemis is. Verder is netwerk meta-modellering ondersoek waarby globalle netwerk en punt-vir-punt netwerk vergelykings tegnieke toegepas is, met die doel om die effek van die ooreenkoms-maatstaf wat gekies is op die topologie van verskeie tipes netwerke, insluitend transcriptomic en filogenomiese netwerke, te bepaal. Twee nuwe netwerk-vergelyking tegnieke is ontwikkel, naamlik "PCA of Topology Profiles" en"Cross-Network Topological Overlap". PCA van Topologie Profiele vergelyk netwerke gebaseer op 'n seleksie van netwerk topologie indekse, terwyl Cross-netwerk Topologiese Oorvleuel vergelyk twee netwerke op 'n punt-vir-punt vlak, en identifiseer punte in twee netwerke met soortgelyke lokale topologie en dus lê klem op gebiede van die netwerke met botsende topologieë. Hierdie netwerk-vergelyking metodes dui duidelik aan hoe die ooreenkoms maatstaf wat gekies is om die lyne van die netwerk gewig te gee, die gevolglike netwerk topologie beïnvloed, wat weer die biologiese interpretasie van die netwerke kan beïnvloed.

Orientador: Vitor Fernandes Oliveira de Miranda / Resumo: Utricularia e Genlisea são gêneros irmãos de plantas carnívoras da família Lentibulariaceae. Possuem aproximadamente 260 espécies representadas em diversas formas de vida. Para o Brasil foram catalogadas 82 espécies, das quais 27 são consideradas endêmicas. Além de dispor das armadilhas carnívoras mais complexas entre plantas, algumas de suas espécies apresentam os menores genomas e as maiores taxas de mutações entre as angiospermas relatadas até o momento. A respeito de seus genomas organelares, os estudos são pífios. Neste contexto, há a necessidade de se investigar como são os genomas organelares, suas estruturas, seus genes e como se deu a evolução das organelas nos gêneros. Portanto este estudo teve como objetivo, a partir de sequenciamento de nova geração e montagem de genomas, estudar e comparar os genomas organelares de Utricularia e Genlisea. Neste âmbito, foram montados e sequenciados os cloroplastos das espécies Utricularia foliosa, U. reniformis, G. aurea, G. filiformis, G. pygmaea, G. repens e G. tuberosa, e o genoma mitocondrial de U. reniformis. Os resultados obtidos revelaram que possivelmente há relação entre forma de vida e presença de genes ndhs nos gêneros, em razão de que para as espécies terrestres há deleção e “pseudogenização” de genes ndhs, já as espécies aquáticas detêm todo repertório de ndhs intacto. A partir das evidências encontradas, foi possível constatar transferência horizontal de genes, inclusive de genes ndhs, em mitocôndrias. / Abstract: Utricularia and Genlisea are sister genera in the carnivorous family Lentibulariaceae. There are aprproximately 260 species representing diverse life forms. For Brasil there are 82 species, 27 considered endemic. At the moment, besides having the most complex carnivorous traps between all plants, some of its species have miniature genomes and the highest mutational rates among angiosperms. There are few studies regarding its organellar genome. In this context, it is necessary to investigate how are these organellar genomes, its structure, genes, and how evolutionary forces govern these organelles in the different genera. Therefore, the aim of this study is to study and compare the organellar genomes of Utricularia and Genlisea, using next generation sequencing and genome assembly. In this context, chloroplasts of the species Utricularia foliosa, U. reniformis, Genlisea aurea, G. filiformis, G. pygmaea, G. repens and G. tuberosa, and the mitochondrial genome of U. reniformis were assembled and sequenced. The results show that possibly there is a connection between life form and the presence of ndhs genes in the genera, since for the terrestrial species there are ndhs genes that are deleted and pseudogenization, in contrary to the aquatic species which have all intact ndhs repertoir. Concerning the evidences, it was possible to verify horizontal transfer of ndhs and other genes as there are chloroplasts genes in the mitochondria. / Doutor

Spores are single-celled dispersal units surrounded by a wall of the highly resistant biopolymer sporopollenin. All land plants produce spores. Spore development is described in Physcomitrella patens, a moss with single-celled spores, and Dendroceros, a hornwort with multicellular spores. Correlated light, fluorescence and immuno-electron microscopy localizes callose in the aperture of developing spores in the model moss Physcomitrella. Twelve copies of callose synthase genes were annotated bioinformatically and compared with Arabidopsis callose synthase genes. This study identifies a suspect gene involved in moss spore exine development. Unicellular spores of Dendroceros following meiosis remain in tetrads, fill the intercapsular space, and are surrounded by a convoluted, homogeneous electron-opaque outer wall and narrow fibrillar inner wall. No precise pattern of cell division leads to multicellular spores of variable shape and cell number. Evolution of precocious endospory in epiphytic hornworts is a means to protect nascent spores while it develops biochemical and structural machinary to withstand drying. To advance knowledge of genetic control of spore wall development, the sequenced genome of Physcomitrella is probed using a bioinformatic approach to decipher the evolution of five selected genes putatively involved in spore wall formation. Those encoding for callose synthase provide the most complete results. Callose involvement in spore development is a plesiomorphic feature of land plants. Phylogenomic analysis of callose synthases in land plants with sequenced genomes revealed a single moss callose synthase basal in a clade containing the only Arabidopsis callose synthase implicated in exine development of pollen walls as well as two clades of moss specific callose synthase proteins. A predicted protein-protein interactome was constructed to investigate the protein landscape in Physcomitrella for proteins involved in sporogenesis. Orthologous genes were identified between Physcomitrellaand several other species to map orthologous interactions and predict the first bryophyte interactome. The Physcomitrella predicted protein-protein interactome contains 41,936 unique interactions for 4062 different proteins, none of which are associated with sporogenesis. Rather the most conserved interactions among proteins were those associated with metabolic processes. The utility of predicted protein interactions to infer biological roles, providing provisional molecular roadmaps is demonstrated to generate hypotheses for experimental approaches.

Estudos filogenômicos usando Sequenciamento de Próxima Geração (do inglês, Next Generation Sequencing - NGS) estão se tornando cada vez mais comuns. O uso de marcadores oriundos do sequenciamento de DNA de uma biblioteca genômica reduzida, neste caso ddRADSeq (do inglês, Double Digestion Restriction Site Associated DNA Sequencing), para este fim é promissor, pelo menos considerando sua relação custo-benefício em grandes conjuntos de dados de grupos não-modelo, bem como a representação genômica recuperada. Aqui usamos ddRADSeq para inferir a filogenia em nível de espécie do gênero Cereus (Cactaceae). Esse gênero compreende em cerca de 25 espécies reconhecidas predominantemente sul-americanas distribuídas em quatro subgêneros. Nossa amostra inclui representantes de Cereus, além de espécies dos gêneros próximos, Cipocereus e Praecereus, além de grupos externos. A biblioteca ddRADSeq foi preparada utilizando as enzimas EcoRI e HPAII. Após o controle de qualidade (tamanho e quantificação dos fragmentos), a biblioteca foi sequenciada no Illumina HiSeq 2500. O processamento de bioinformática a partir de arquivos FASTQ incluiu o controle da presença de adaptadores, filtragem por qualidade (softwares FastQC, MultiQC e SeqyClean) e chamada de SNPs (software iPyRAD). Três cenários de permissividade a dados faltantes foram realizados no iPyRAD, recuperando conjuntos de dados com 333 (até 40% de dados perdidos), 1440 (até 60% de dados perdidos) e 6141 (até 80% de dados faltantes) loci. Para cada conjunto de dados, árvores de Máxima Verossimilhança (MV) foram geradas usando duas supermatrizes: SNPs ligados e Loci. Em geral, observamos algumas inconsistências entre as árvores ML geradas em softwares distintos (IQTree e RaxML) ou baseadas no tipo de matriz distinta (SNPs ligados e Loci). Por outro lado, a precisão e a resolução, foram melhoradas usando o maior conjunto de dados (até 80% de dados perdidos). Em geral, apresentamos uma filogenia com resolução inédita para o gênero Cereus, que foi resolvido como um provável grupo monofilético, composto por quatro clados principais e com alto suporte em suas relações internas. Além disso, nossos dados contribuem para agregar informações sobre o debate sobre o aumento de dados faltantes para conduzir a análise filogenética com loci RAD. / Phylogenomics studies using Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) are becoming increasingly common. The use of Double Digest Restriction Site Associated DNA Sequencing (ddRADSeq) markers to this end is promising, at least considering its cost-effectiveness in large datasets of non-model groups as well as the genome-wide representation recovered in the data. Here we used ddRADSeq to infer the species level phylogeny of genus Cereus (Cactaceae). This genus comprises about 25 species recognized predominantly South American species distributed into four subgenera. Our sample includes representatives of Cereus, in addition to species from the closely allied genera Cipocereus and Praecereus, besides outgroups. The ddRADSeq library was prepared using EcoRI and HPAII enzymes. After the quality control (fragments size and quantification) the library was sequenced in Illumina HiSeq 2500. The bioinformatic processing on raw FASTQ files included adapter trimming, quality filtering (FastQC, MultiQC and SeqyClean softwares) and SNPs calling (iPyRAD software). Three scenarios of permissiveness to missing data were carry out in iPyRAD, recovering datasets with 333 (up tp 40% missing data), 1440 (up to 60% missing data) and 6141 (up to 80% missing data) loci. For each dataset, Maximum Likelihood (ML) trees were generated using two supermatrices: SNPs linked and Loci. In general, we observe few inconsistences between ML trees generated in distinct softwares (IQTree and RaxML) or based in distinctive matrix type (SNP linked and Loci). On the other hand, the accuracy and resolution were improved using the larger dataset (up to 80% missing data). Overall, we present a phylogeny with unprecedent resolution for genus Cereus, which was resolved as a likely monophyletic group, composed by four main clades and with high support in their internal relationships. Further, our data contributes to aggregate information on the debate about to increasing missing data to conduct phylogenetic analysis with RAD loci.