<p dir="ltr">The objective of this thesis was to evaluate the nutrient digestibility in alternative animal and plant sources of feed ingredients for chickens and pigs. Therefore, 5 studies were carried out to determine the nutrient utilization in poultry meal (<b>PM</b>), faba beans (<b>FB</b>), and 3 cultivars field peas (<b>FP</b>).</p><p dir="ltr">In the first study, 2 experiments investigated the energy and phosphorus utilization of PM for broiler chickens. Poultry meal was used to substitute corn and soybean meal in the reference diet at 0, 80, or 160 g/kg in Experiment 1. Whereas PM was included in the diet at 0, 50, or 100 g/kg in Experiment 2. A total of 192 birds were allotted to 3 experimental diets in both experiments. The estimated ileal digestible energy (<b>IDE</b>), metabolizable energy (<b>ME</b>), and nitrogen-corrected metabolizable energy (<b>MEn</b>) for PM were 4,002, 3,756, and 3,430 kcal/kg DM, respectively. In Experiment 2, the true ileal digestibility (<b>TID</b>) and true total tract utilization (<b>TTTU</b>) of P in PM were 77.5 and 79.0%, respectively.</p><p dir="ltr">The second study consisted of 3 experiments. In the first experiment, 240 birds were assigned to 5 diets to determine the energy values of FB and DS admiral FP (<b>FPD</b>). In Experiment 1, the test ingredients were incorporated into a corn-soybean meal-based diet at 0, 150 or 300 g/kg. The IDE, ME, and MEn for FB were 2,541, 2,628, and 2,394 kcal/kg, respectively. The respective values for FPD were 2,254, 2,540, and 2,331 kcal/kg DM. In each of Experiments 2 and 3, 162 birds were assigned to 3 diets. Faba beans was included at 21, 42, or 63% and FPD at 16, 32, or 48% in Experiments 2 and 3, respectively. The TID and TTTU of P in FB were 66.5 and 66.7%, respectively. The corresponding values for FPD were 73.4 and 73.8%.</p><p dir="ltr">The third study consisted of 3 experiments. In Experiment 1, the energy values for Hampton FP (<b>FPH</b>) and 4010 FP (<b>FP4</b>) fed to broiler chickens were estimated. Two hundred and forty birds were assigned to 5 diets. The test ingredients were included at 0, 150 or 300 g/kg into a corn-soybean meal-based reference diet. With regression analysis, the determined IDE, ME, and MEn were 3,274, 3,033, and 2,850 kcal/kg DM in FPH, respectively, in FP4 the energy values were 3,019, 3,155, and 2,991 kcal/kg DM, respectively. The P utilization in FPH and FP4 were determined in Experiments 2 and 3, respectively. The corresponding TID and TTTU of P in FPH were 74.6% and 68.3%, and 74.3 and 61.7% in FP4.</p><p dir="ltr">Two experiments were conducted in the fourth study to estimate the digestible energy (<b>DE</b>) and ME in FB and FP fed to pigs. Twenty-four barrows were assigned to 3 dietary treatments in each of the experiments. Faba beans or FPD in Experiment 1 and FPH or FP4 in Experiment 2 were included in the diet at 0 or 300 g/kg. The determined DE and ME values for FB using the total collection method were 3,772 and 3,606 kcal/kg DM and in FPD were 3,683 and 3,589 kcal/kg DM, respectively. In Exp. 2, the respective DE and ME for FPH were 4,164 and 4,014 kcal/kg DM and for FP4 were 3,574 and 3,467 kcal/kg DM.</p><p dir="ltr">In the last study, standardized ileal digestibility (<b>SID</b>) of amino acids (<b>AA</b>) in faba beans and three cultivars of FP between broiler chickens and pigs were compared. The test ingredients were the only source of protein providing 160 g/kg crude protein and a nitrogen-free diet was prepared to estimate the basal endogenous losses of AA. The same set of five diets was used across both species. The SID of Lys in FB, FPD, and FPH exceeded 90% but in FP4 it was 85.1% for broiler chickens. Whereas for pigs the SID of Lys in FB, FPD, and FPH exceeded 80% but for FP4 it was 89.8%. The SID of Met in the test ingredients ranged from 72.1 to 89.8% and 68.1 to 81.8% for broiler chickens and pigs, respectively. In general, the SID of AA in the test ingredients were greater compared with chickens. The energy, P, and AA digestibility of the test ingredients determined in the five studies could be used in diet formulation for chickens and pigs.</p>

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Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are among the world's most destructive mammalian invasive species, and mitigating farther range expansion will require a thorough understanding of movement behavior, diel activity patterns, space use, and resource selection. Currently, limited empirical evidence is available on the ecology of wild pigs in Southwest Florida. Therefore, I examined how wild pigs behaviorally modified their movements and diel activity patterns in response to individual and environmental covariates. I investigated space use dynamics (e.g., home range size and seasonal variation) and evaluated how individual and environmental variation influenced home range size. Next, I determined how fine-scale movement patterns and resource selection of wild pigs are affected by temperature and time of day, and how those resources changed at broad and fine-scales, given their availability. I found that as temperature increased, the probability of foraging increased while the probability of traveling decreased. Foraging behavior occurred predominately between 8:00 and 17:00, and traveling behavior occurred predominately between 18:00 and 7:00, thereby indicating wild pigs were cathemeral. Home range size ranged from 2.6 to 35.8 km2 and averaged 13.0 km2 (n=16). Finally, home range size increased as the proportion of pasture increased and decreased as the proportion of wetlands increased, indicating that resources in agricultural areas were more diffuse than in natural habitats. At the broad (i.e., home range selection) and fine-scale (i.e., within home range) wild pigs selected for wetlands, forests, and pastures. Wild pig movement tended to be tortuous in forested and cropland habitats, but more directed in pasture habitats. Slower movements (i.e., smaller steps) and more directed (i.e., fewer turning) steps were observed during warmer temperatures, particularly avoiding croplands when temperatures were warmer. Wild pigs avoided wetland habitats during dusk and night hours and cropland habitats during dawn hours. Wild pigs selected for forested habitats during night and dawn hours, possibly in response to human activity. In addition, I found that wild pigs were less likely to step into a location with a daily temperature of 35.7°C than 16.1 C°. Wild pigs were less likely to choose warmer locations and more likely to select intermediate temperatures, thus avoiding locations with extremely low or high daily temperatures. Also, I found that wild pigs were more likely to select home ranges nearer to wetlands, forests, and pastures, while avoiding areas near cropland habitats. However, within their home ranges they were more likely to select habitats farther from croplands, forests, and wetlands. My findings reinforce the importance of wetlands, forests and pastures to wild pig selection of home ranges, where they likely utilize these landcover types for thermoregulation (e.g. forests and wetlands) and for foraging resources (e.g. pastures). Within their home ranges wild pigs may avoid forests and wetlands due to perceived predation risk being higher in those habitats, thus causing wild pigs to forgo higher quality resources to reduce risk. These results contribute information useful to wildlife managers to better predict which landcover types provide refuge (e.g., wetlands and forests) or potential movement corridors (e.g., pasture and cropland habitats) for wild pigs. In Southwest Florida, wild pigs have broad inter-individual variation in home range size, are strongly regulated by temperature, and are largely dependent on wetlands and forests to meet their energetic demands. / Doctor of Philosophy / Wild pigs are one of the world's most destructive invasive species. Although, hunters often oppose efforts to reduce wild pig populations, agricultural and natural resource managers support reduction efforts because they cause major economic and ecological damage. In addition, wild pigs carry a plethora of diseases and pose direct health risks to livestock, wildlife, and humans. Therefore, a better understanding of how environmental and landscape factors influence wild pig movements and space use is of broad interest to multiple stakeholder groups. I found that wild pigs mostly foraged during daytime and traveled at night, indicative of irregular activity patterns. Home range size averaged 13.0 km2 across 16 individuals and tended to increase as the proportion of pasture habitat increased and decreased as herbaceous wetlands increased. This indicated that resources were more abundant in natural habitats. Wild pigs preferred wetlands, forests, and pastures, and avoided croplands. However, they were more likely to forage in forests and croplands, and travel in pastures. Wild pigs avoided wetlands during dusk and night hours and croplands at dawn, while selecting forests during night and dawn hours. Wild pigs tended to move slower with less turning during warmer temperatures, particularly avoiding croplands when temperatures were hot. In general, wild pigs avoided locations with extremely low or high daily temperatures. I found wild pigs were more likely to select home ranges nearer to wetlands, forests, and pastures, while avoiding areas near cropland habitats. Wild pigs likely utilized these landcover types for thermoregulation (e.g. forests and wetlands) and for foraging resources (e.g. pastures), while avoiding open areas (e.g. croplands) due to a lack of shade. However, within their home ranges they were more likely to select habitats farther from croplands, forests, and wetlands, possibly because they perceived these areas to have higher predation risk. I highlight differences in space use among individuals and identify habitat types that are most likely to meet energetic demands. By understanding how environmental factors (e.g., habitat type and temperature) influence home range movement behaviors of wild pigs, land managers can focus on scale-dependent population control efforts. My results will aid land managers in better predicting which landcover types are providing refuge (e.g., wetlands and forests) or serving as potential movement corridors (e.g., pasture and cropland habitats).

Human rotavirus (HRV) and human norovirus (HuNoV) are the most common causative agents of acute gastroenteritis- (AGE) related morbidity and mortality around the world. Gnotobiotic (Gn) pigs are the ideal large-animal model that allows for accurate, and precise, preclinical evaluation of vaccine efficacy. Similarities in gastrointestinal anatomy, physiology, and immune system allows for direct translation of results from Gn pigs to humans. Commercially available HRV vaccines perform significantly poorer in low- and middle- income countries as compared with developed countries. Non-replicating rotavirus vaccines (NRRVs) have been proposed as a viable solution to the problems facing currently available live-, attenuated oral vaccines and evaluation of a NRRV was the first research project in this dissertation. Three doses of a novel parenterally administered nanoparticle-based RV vaccine, P24-VP8*, adjuvanted with Al(OH)3 adjuvant, was able to prime VP8*-specific mucosal and systemic T cell responses (IFN-γ producing CD4+ and CD8+ T cells), and to induce strong systemic B cell responses (IgA, IgG and serum neutralizing antibodies). A significant reduction in the mean diarrhea duration, fecal virus shedding titers, and significantly lower fecal cumulative consistency scores was observed among vaccinated pigs demonstrating the efficacy of the vaccine against RV infection and diarrhea. Next, we determined the median infectious dose (ID50) and median diarrhea dose (DD50) of the GII.4/2003 Cin-1 variant of HuNoV in Gn pigs to better standardize the pig model for HuNoV vaccine evaluation. Gn pigs were inoculated with 7 different doses of Cin-1 at 33-34 days of age. Pigs were monitored daily from post-inoculation day (PID) 1 to 7, for fecal virus shedding and fecal consistency to evaluate the virus infectiousness and associated diarrhea. The Log10 ID50 and DD50 were determined based on various mathematical models to be between 3.11 to 3.76, and 3.37 to 4.87 RNA copies, respectively. The Beta-Poisson was identified to be the best-fitting statistical model for estimating both the ID50 and DD50 of Cin-1. Determining the ID50 of the challenge virus strain is crucial for identifying the true infectiousness of HuNoVs and for accurate evaluation of protective efficacies in pre-clinical studies of therapeutics, vaccines and other prophylactics using this reliable animal model. The lack of an easily reproducible cell culture model for HuNoV has significantly delayed the development of effective vaccines. There is still no HuNoV vaccine available. Currently, the vaccine development efforts are mostly based on genetically engineered virus-like particles (VLPs) comprised of the major HuNoV capsid protein VP1. We tested the immunogenicity of a novel tetravalent VLP vaccine containing 4 major HuNoV genotypes (GI.1, GII.3, GII.4 and GII.17) using Gn pigs and evaluated its protective efficacy when challenged with GII.4 Cin-1 HuNoV. Three doses of the VLP vaccine with Al(OH)3 adjuvant administered to Gn pigs intramuscularly (IM), induced high levels of VLP-specific serum IgA and IgG antibody and hemagglutination inhibition antibody responses in the vaccinated pigs. VLP-specific IFN-γ producing CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were also elevated among vaccinated pigs at post-challenge day (PCD) 7 in the spleen and blood, but not in the ileum. However, the vaccinated pigs were not protected from infection and diarrhea when challenged with any one of the three different doses (2 x 105, 8 x 104, and 2 x 104 genome RNA copies) of Cin-1 HuNoV. These results indicated that the IM tetravalent VLP vaccine was highly immunogenic, but the presence of high levels of immune effectors induced by the vaccine were not sufficient for protecting the Gn pigs from Cin-1 challenge. Amino acid (aa) sequence analysis showed that the GII.4 Sydney 2012 strain which was included in the VLP vaccine, had 23 aa substitutions in the major receptor binding domain (P2) compared to the Cin-1, a GII.4 Farmington Hills 2002 strain. Our findings, for the first time, provided in vivo experimental evidence for the total lack of cross-genogroup, cross-genotype and cross-variant protection among HuNoV. This finding has importance implications for HuNoV vaccine development. HuNoV vaccines have to include multiple variants and have to be routinely updated in order to ensure sustained protection among the population. Together these three studies in this dissertation demonstrate the versatility of Gn pigs as a reliable large animal model for studying the pathogenesis and immunity of enteric viruses and the evaluation of immunogenicity and protective efficacy of novel enteric viral vaccines. / Doctor of Philosophy / People of all age groups are susceptible to acute gastroenteritis (AGE), a condition characterized by sudden onset of diarrhea, nausea and abdominal cramps. The two most important viral pathogens responsible for causing AGE are rotavirus (RV) and norovirus (NoV). Gnotobiotic (Gn) pigs have been valuable in helping us understand the mechanism of infection, pathogenesis, immunity and have played a key role in the expediting development of novel vaccines and therapeutics against both of these viruses. Live oral RV vaccines are available but they are not very effective in low income countries where the vaccines are needed the most. Next generation parenteral vaccines are proposed to improve the RV vaccine efficacy. Our first study showed that a nanoparticle-based intramuscular (IM) RV vaccine effectively reduced the duration and severity of human RV infection and diarrhea in Gn pigs. Secondly, we examined in detail the infectivity of HuNoV and identified accurately using different mathematical models on how much virus would be required to infect and cause diarrhea in naïve Gn pigs. This knowledge would greatly help in the accurate assessment of the efficacy of NoV vaccines. Third, we evaluated the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of a tetravalent IM NoV vaccine in Gn pigs. Although the vaccine was highly immunogenic, it did not confer any protection against infection and diarrhea upon challenge with the NoV at different doses. NoVs are so diverse that one year we might be infected with one strain and a few years later, we might be infected again with another strain, even though they belong to the same genotype, and experience the same symptoms. This is because, changes brought about due to mutation in the virus capsid protein allow the viruses to hide from neutralizing antibodies induced by previous infection or vaccination as we have revealed in this study. NoV diversity and lack of cross protection need to be taken into consideration during vaccine development. This thesis shows how Gn pigs can be used to study these components in order to further maximize our ability to understand and combat enteric viral diseases.

Decision-making during crises is an important task that many elected officials face during their time in office. This thesis seeks to identify principles that make up a sound policy decision-making process and may lead to more positive outcomes. The analysis here is a comparative case study of three national security crises that faced the John F. Kennedy administration: the Bay of Pigs, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and the Vietnam conflict. Each case is examined for the presence of indicators of groupthink. I hypothesize that the relative absence of groupthink is related to a positive outcome. That hypothesis is examined by reviewing each case; the cases that contained higher levels of the indicators of groupthink tended to have a poorer quality process than those with less evidence of groupthink. / Master of Arts