京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(農学) / 甲第23524号 / 農博第2471号 / 新制||農||1087(附属図書館) / 学位論文||R3||N5355(農学部図書室) / 京都大学大学院農学研究科応用生物科学専攻 / (主査)教授 髙野 義孝, 教授 寺内 良平, 教授 吉田 健太郎 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Agricultural Science / Kyoto University / DGAM

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(農学) / 甲第22128号 / 農博第2374号 / 新制||農||1073(附属図書館) / 学位論文||R1||N5236(農学部図書室) / 京都大学大学院農学研究科応用生物科学専攻 / (主査)教授 髙野 義孝, 教授 田中 千尋, 教授 寺内 良平 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Agricultural Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Many economically important crop systems exhibit an Age-Related Resistance (ARR) response whereby mature plants become resistant to pathogens they were susceptible to when younger. The signaling pathways and mechanisms of ARR have not been well studied. Arabidopsis displays ARR in response to P. syringae pv tomato (Pst). Several studies provide evidence that intercellular salicylic acid (SA) accumulation is required for ARR and SA acts as a direct antimicrobial agent to limit bacterial growth and biofilm-like aggregate formation. SA accumulation mutants are ARR defective; however, a modest level of resistance is occasionally observed leading to the hypothesis that other compounds contribute to ARR as antimicrobial agents. Previous studies demonstrated that CYP71A13 (a key enzyme in indolic biosynthesis) is expressed during the ARR response. I demonstrated that CYP71A12 functionally compensated for CYP71A13 during ARR, as cyp71a12/cyp71a13-1 mutants were consistently ARR-defective compared to their respective single mutants. I demonstrated that dihydrocamalexic acid (DHCA) accumulated in intercellular washing fluids (IWFs) collected from plants during the ARR response using high resolution mass spectrometry-based profiling. DHCA was detected in IWFs collected from wild-type ARR-competent plants and, was absent in IWFs from ARR-incompetent cyp71a12/cyp71a13 mutants. In vitro DHCA antimicrobial activity against P. syringae was not observed, but exogenous infiltration of DHCA into the leaf intercellular space restored ARR in cyp71a12/cyp71a13 mutants Unlike SA which exhibits direct antimicrobial activity against P. syringae, DHCA does not and instead may affect pathogen virulence in other ways. My research provides evidence that intercellular DHCA contributes to ARR in response to P. syringae in Arabidopsis. Understanding the genes and metabolites contributing to ARR will provide useful information for future crop breeding and genetic modification that will mitigate agricultural losses due to disease. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / During Age-Related Resistance (ARR), mature plants including some crop plants become resistant to pathogens they were susceptible to when younger. How ARR works is poorly understood. My objective was to identify potential antimicrobial metabolites contributing to ARR in Arabidopsis against the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae. Genetic analyses combined with mass-spectrometry based metabolite profiling demonstrates that two cytochromes P450, CYP71A12 and CYP71A13 contribute to ARR. My research provides evidence that DHCA accumulates in the leaf intercellular space in ARR-competent plants, where it may act to inhibit the bacterial infection process. DHCA has low antimicrobial activity against P. syringae suggesting its mechanism of action is not directly antimicrobial. Importantly, application of DHCA to the leaf intercellular space of cyp71a12/cyp71a13 restored ARR, confirming that DHCA contributes to ARR in Arabidopsis. Understanding ARR will provide useful information for future crop breeding and genetic modification that will mitigate agricultural losses due to disease.

Pseudomonas syringae is an important bacterial plant pathogen that, as a species, is known to cause disease on hundreds of different plant species. However, any individual pathovar of P. syringae typically only causes disease on one or a few plant species, which constitute the host range of the pathovar. Plants are generally resistant to most pathogens primarily because the plant innate immune system is capable of recognizing conserved microbial-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs). Adapted pathovars of P. syringae secrete effector proteins through a Type Three Secretion System (T3SS) to suppress the immune response elicited by their MAMPs. However, secretion of effectors can also trigger a strong plant immune response if the plant harbors resistance proteins capable of recognizing the secreted effectors. Successful pathovars, therefore, must secrete a combination of effectors capable of suppressing MAMP/Pattern-Triggered Immunity (PTI) without eliciting Effector-Triggered Immunity. Here we identify several novel strategies employed by P. syringae to overcome the plant immune system and cause disease. First, we demonstrate that, in place of the canonical T3SS used by all known pathogens of P. syringae, several apparently nonpathogenic isolates of P. syringae employ a novel T3SS that is functional but not necessary for colonization of plants. Despite being closely related to pathogenic isolates of P. syringae, the isolates employing the noncanonical T3SS do not cause disease on any tested plants and instead appear to act more as commensal organisms. Second, we advance the understanding of PTI by identifying a second region of bacterial flagellin that triggers PTI in addition to the archetypical MAMP flg22, which is recognized by the archetypical plant receptor FLS2. This new elicitor, termed flgII-28, is also detected by FLS2 and appears to be under selection in very closely related lineages of P. syringae. Alleles of flagellin present in one recently expanded and agriculturally problematic lineage of P. syringae appear to trigger less PTI on their host plant, tomato, than the ancestral allele suggesting that avoidance of PTI through allelic diversity in MAMPs is an effective alternative strategy to suppression of PTI through delivery of effectors. Finally, we start to elucidate a role for chemotaxis (chemical-directed movement) in P. syringae pathogenicity. Not only is chemotaxis required for pathogenicity of P. syringae on plants, but it also appears to contribute to delimiting the host range of several P. syringae pathovars. These results highlight that additional aspects of P. syringae pathogenicity, such as chemotaxis, can directly contribute to defining the host range of individual P. syringae pathovars. The current paradigm of P. syringae pathogenicity posits that MAMPS and the repertoire of effector proteins are the primary determinant of the host range of any P. syringae pathovar; in contrast these results inspire a more nuanced view of pathogenicity that considers multiple aspects of the infection process. / Ph. D.

Bacterial fruit blotch (BFB) of cucurbits is caused by Acidovorax citrulli, a Gram-negative seedborne bacterium that can cause up to 100% fruit yield losses in the field. Currently, BFB is a major problem for the cucurbits industry worldwide. Thus far, attempts to identify resistance in cucurbit germplasm for controlling BFB have been unsuccessful. Despite the importance of the disease, little is known about the molecular mechanisms of A. citrulli pathogenicity, due to a lack of molecular tools for studying the A. citrulli/cucurbit interaction. The genomic sequence of A. citrulli strain AAC00-1 has been determined, and the components of type III secretion system have been identified. The goal of this research was to develop molecular tools for studying the BFB disease. Nineteen putative type III effector genes were cloned from two representative A. citrulli strains (AAC00-1 and M6). The distribution of 19 type III effectors among A. citrulli strains, collected worldwide, was studied. A novel Gateway-compatible binary vector was developed for transient expression of A. citrulli type III effectors genes in planta. A set of modified vectors for marker-exchange mutagenesis in A. citrulli were constructed. The model plant species Nicotiana benthamiana was found to be susceptible to A. citrulli, while Nicotiana tabacum was resistance to A. citrulli, so therefore could carry nonhost resistance genes. Two T3S effectors, Aave1548 and Aave2166, triggered water soaking-like cell death in N. benthamiana, but HR-like cell death in N. tabacum. Bacterial mutagenesis and in planta disease assay confirmed that both Aave1548 and Aave2166 have significant virulence contributions to A. citrulli in N. benthamiana plant and melon seeds. Aave2166 encodes a putative acetyltransferase that belongs to the YopJ super family, which is conserved in both animal and plant pathogenic bacteria. Wild type but not the putative catalytic mutant (C232A) of Aave2166 can trigger cell death phenotype in N. benthamiana and N. tabacum. N. benthamiana yeast two-hybrid cDNA library screening using Aave2166 identified six N. benthamiana proteins/peptides which specifically interacted with Aave2166. Further characterization of these Aave2166 interactors may allow us to understand the virulence mechanism provided by Aave2166. The identification of nonhost resistance genes that can recognize Aave2166 and other type III effectors may help to develop novel strategies to control BFB disease of cucurbit. / Ph. D.

La protéine chaperonne CDC48 (Cell division cycle 48) est un acteur important du contrôle qualité des protéines chez les eucaryotes et est associée à divers processus physio(patho)logiques chez les mammifères. En revanche, son rôle au sein du règne végétal a été peu appréhendé. Ce travail de thèse s’inscrit dans l’étude des fonctions de CDC48 chez les plantes et concerne plus particulièrement son implication dans la réponse immunité induite chez le tabac par cryptogéine produite par l’oomycète phytophthora cryptogea.Trois stratégies ont été adoptées. Premièrement, la dynamique d’accumulation de la protéine CDC48 ainsi que les événements intracellulaires sous-jacents à la réponse immunitaire ont été étudiés à la fois dans des cellules de tabac sauvages et des cellules sur-exprimant la protéine CDC48 (lignée CDC48-TAP). Deuxièmement, une liste de protéines interagissant avec CDC48 a été établie suite à des expériences d’immuno-précipitation de CDC48 suivit d’analyses de spectrométrie de masse. Parmi celles-ci, la forme cytosolique de l’ascorbate peroxydase (cAPX), une enzyme impliquée dans la détoxication du H2O2 intracellulaire, a fait l’objet d’une étude ciblée. Enfin, ces travaux ont été complétés par une analyse bio-informatique de l’ensemble des partenaires de CDC48 identifiés chez le tabac et d’établissement du réseau d’interaction protéique de CDC48 chez Arabidopsis thaliana.Les principaux résultats obtenus ont montré que l’activation de la réponse immunitaire s’accompagne de l’induction d’une accumulation des transcrits et la protéine CDC48. De plus, une mort cellulaire précoce a été observée chez les cellules CDC48-TAP, suggérant un rôle de cette dernière dans la régulation de la réponse hypersensible. L’interaction physique entre CDC48 et cAPX a été confirmée par différentes approches. De façon intéressante, il s’est avéré que l’activité et la dynamique d’accumulation de cAPX sont fortement impactées par la surexpression de CDC48. En accord avec ses résultats, le statut rédox s’est également révélé altéré dans la lignée surexpresseur. Enfin, l’analyse bio-informatique du réseau d’interaction protéique de CDC48 a permis de dégager de nouvelles protéines cibles, en particulier celles impliquées dans le métabolisme de la S-adenosylméthionine, une molécule substrat des réactions de trans-méthylation et précurseur de l’éthylène et de la nicotianamine. De plus, cette analyse a confirmé son rôle dans du système de dégradation Ubiquitine/protéasome.Pour conclure, ce travail de thèse apporte de nouvelles informations quant au rôle de CDC48 dans la biologie des plantes. Il indique que celle-ci est mobilisée dans les cellules végétales exprimant une réponse immunitaire et impacte le statut rédox via la régulation du turnover de cAPX. De nouvelles pistes de recherche ont été dégagées, en particulier un rôle probable de CDC48 dans la régulation de la synthèse de la S-adenosylméthionine et de la réponse hypersensible suivant des mécanismes restant à déterminer. / The chaperone protein CDC48 (Cell division cycle 48) is a major regulator of the quality control of proteins and is involved in various cellular processes in animals and yeast. In contrast, the role of CDC48 in plants is poorly known. In the present work, we investigated the function of CDC48 in plant immunity thanks to the cryptogein/tobacco biological model, cryptogein being produced by the oomycete phytophthora cryptogea.Three strategies were carried out. First, the dynamic of accumulation CDC48 together with intracellular events inherent to the immune response were analyzed in both wild-type and CDC48 overexpressing tobacco cells (CDC48-TAP line). Second, a list if CDC48 partners was established based on immunoprecipitation assays followed by mass spectroscopy analysis. Among those partners the cytosolic form of acorbate peroxidase (cAPX), a central enzyme of the regulation of the redox status regulation, has been specifically studied. Finally, a computational analysis of the partner list of CDC48 and the subsequent generation of the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of CDC48 in Arabidopsis thaliana were undertook.Our data indicated that the activation of the immune response is accompanied by an induction of the accumulation of both CDC48 transcript and protein. In addition, an early and exacerbated cell death was observed in the CDC48-TAP line, suggesting a role for CDC48 in the hypersensitive response. The interaction between CDC48 and cAPX was confirmed by different approaches. Interestingly, the activity of CDC48 and its dynamic of accumulation were strongly impacted in the CDC48 overexpressing line. Accordingly, a dysregulation of the redox status also occurred in this line. Finally, the computational analysis of the CDC48 PPI network highlighted new potential target proteins including proteins involved in the metabolism of S-adenosylmethionine, a substrate molecule of trans-methylation reactions and precursor of ethylene and nicotianamine.To summarize, this work provides new information about CDC48 in plant biology. It indicates that CDC48 is mobilized by plant cells undergoing an immune response and impacts the redox status through the regulation of the cAPX turnover. New research avenues emerged from our study, notably a putative role of CDC48 in the regulation of S-adenosylmethionine biosynthesis and in the establishment of hypersensitive response through process which remain to be investigated

The work here presents two main parts. In the first part, chapters 1 – 3 focus on dynamical systems modeling in plant immunity, whereas chapters 4 – 6 describe contributions to computational modeling and analysis of proteomics and genomics data. Chapter 1 investigates dynamical and biochemical patterns of reversibly oxidized cysteines (RevOxCys) during effector-triggered immunity (ETI) in Arabidopsis, examines the regulatory patterns associated with Arabidopsis thimet oligopeptidase 1 and 2’s (TOP1 and TOP2), roles in the RevOxCys events during ETI, and analyzes the redox phenotype of the top1top2 mutant. The second chapter investigates the peptidome dynamics during ETI in wild-type (WT) and top1top2 mutant, introduces a novel method to learn the cleavage motif for TOPs and predicts and validates bioactive peptides association with TOPs activity. The third chapter examines gene expression dynamics during Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR). Time-series clustering identifies unique oscillatory patterns in gene transcription associated with the early onset of SAR. It then describes a mathematical model using ordinary differential equations to represent WT's transcriptional dynamics. The second part of this dissertation explores imputation and statistical modeling for proteomics data analysis and proposes a network inference methodology for polymorphic cysteines. The fourth chapter analyzes the performance of linear models (limma) and the effect of imputation in proteomics data. It shows the advantage of data imputation over filtering and the benefit of using limma over t-test for the statistical decision of differences in means between conditions for different peptides, PTMs, etc. The fifth chapter proposes a statistical model for proteomics data analysis using mean-variance (M-V) trend modeling. It describes a gamma regression to model the dependency of the variance on the mean of observations. Finally, a Bayesian decision model is proposed; the model shows an improvement over existing methods in statistical decision performance. The sixth and final chapter describes a network inference procedure that identifies genetic dependencies between polymorphic cysteines. It models the interactions between cysteines (nodes) as signed edges for positive or inhibitory relations. It utilizes local network structures for inferences about the relationship between the cysteines. The algorithm exhibits stability and efficiency, converging rapidly to inferred solutions.

Les maladies des plantes causées par les champignons sont un problème majeur en agriculture. Pour les contrôler, les gènes de résistance (R) qui permettent de développer des variétés de plantes résistantes sont des éléments clés. La majorité des gènes R codent pour des protéines NLRs caractérisées par la présence d'un domaine de liaison aux nucléotides (NB-ARC) et un domaine de répétitions riches en leucines (LRR). Ces protéines agissent comme des récepteurs immunitaires intracellulaires et reconnaissent des facteurs de virulence des agents pathogènes appelés effecteurs. Les champignons phytopathogènes possèdent de vastes répertoires d'effecteurs qui contiennent centaines de protéines sécrétés, de petites tailles et sans similarités de séquence entre elles.La première question abordée dans ma thèse concerne l’origine de l'immense diversité des effecteurs fongiques. Une analyse structurale a identifié une famille d’effecteurs de séquences différentes mais qui possèdent une structure conservée. Cette famille a été appelée MAX-effectors (Magnaporthe Avrs and ToxB like) et elle est particulièrement importante chez Magnaporthe oryzae, l'agent causal de la pyriculariose du riz. Par des analyses d'expression, j'ai confirmé que la majorité des effecteurs MAX de M. oryzae sont spécifiquement exprimés durant la phase précoce de l'infection, suggérant une fonction importante durant la colonisation de la plante. Les effecteurs MAX constituent la première famille d'effecteurs fongiques définis par leur structure. Cette étude apporte donc de nouvelles pistes pour l'identification d'effecteurs chez les champignons et contribue à une meilleure compréhension de l'évolution des effecteurs. En effet, le scénario observé chez les effecteurs MAX suggère que beaucoup d’effecteurs fongiques appartiennent à un nombre restreint de familles d'effecteurs définies par leur structure. La seconde question que j’ai abordée durant ma thèse est le mécanisme moléculaire de la reconnaissance des effecteurs par les NLRs. J'ai abordé cette question en étudiant la reconnaissance de l'effecteur AVR-Pia par le couple de NLRs RGA4/RGA5. Des travaux précédents ont montré que RGA5 agit comme récepteur et se lie directement à AVR-Pia tandis que RGA4 agit comme élément de signalisation constitutivement actif, qui, en absence de l’agent pathogène, est réprimé par RGA5. Un domaine de RGA5, normalement absent chez les protéines NLR et similaire à la chaperonne du cuivre ATX1 (domaine RATX1), interagit physiquement avec AVR-Pia. Il a été suggéré que ce domaine RATX1 puisse agir comme un leurre de la cible de virulence d’AVR-Pia. Ce leurre, intégré dans la structure de RGA5, permettrait de « piéger » l’effecteur par interaction directe et jouerait donc un rôle crucial dans sa reconnaissance spécifique. Grâce à une analyse structurale détaillée d’AVR-Pia j’ai pu confirmer le rôle central de l'interaction AVR-Pia-RATX1 dans la reconnaissance de cet effecteur ce qui conforte le modèle du « leurre intégré ». De plus, j’ai caractérisé la surface d'interaction avec laquelle AVR-Pia lie le domaine RATX1. De plus, j'ai détecté des interactions entre AVR-Pia et d'autres parties de RGA5, indépendantes du domaine RATX1, notamment les domaines NB-ARC et LRR. Ceci a permis de développer un modèle qui explique comment la liaison d’un effecteur à un récepteur NLR comportant un leurre intégré par différentes interactions indépendantes conduit à une reconnaissance très sensible et spécifique qui est peu affectée par des mutations ponctuelles de l’effecteur. En résumé, cette étude a produit des connaissances nouvelles sur la fonction des récepteurs des plantes de type NLRs et sur leur capacité à reconnaitre des effecteurs. Ceci contribue à une meilleure compréhension du système immunitaire des plantes, ce qui est un élément important pour l’obtention de cultures durablement résistantes aux maladies / Plant diseases caused by fungi constitute a worldwide threat to food security and disease resistance (R) genes that allow to breed resistant crops are key elements for efficient disease control. The vast majority of R genes code for NLR multi domain proteins characterized by nucleotide-binding and leucine-rich repeat domains and acting as intracellular immune receptors for pathogen-secreted virulence factors termed effectors. Phytopathogenic fungi possess huge effector repertoires that are dominated by hundreds of sequence-unrelated small secreted proteins. The first question I addressed in my PhD thesis is: how is the tremendous diversity of fungal effectors generated? A structural analysis had identified the family of sequence-unrelated but structurally conserved MAX-effectors (Magnaporthe Avrs and ToxB like) that has expanded specifically in Magnaporthe oryzae the causal agent of rice blast disease. By expression analysis, I confirmed that the majority of M. oryzae MAX-effectors are expressed specifically during early infection suggesting important functions during host colonization. MAX effectors are the first structurally defined family of effectors in fungi and this study gives therefore news clues for the identification of candidate effectors in fungi and constitutes a crucial step towards a better understanding of effector evolution. In fact, the scenario observed for MAX-effectors leads to the hypothesis that the enormous number of sequence-unrelated fungal effectors belong in fact to a restricted set of structurally conserved effector families.The second question I investigated in my PhD thesis is: what are the molecular mechanisms of effector recognition by NLR immune receptors? I addressed this question by studying recognition of the M. oryzae effector AVR-Pia by the rice NLR pair RGA4/RGA5. Previous work has shown that RGA5 acts as a receptor that binds directly to AVR-Pia while RGA4 acts as a constitutively active signaling protein that is, in the absence of pathogen, repressed by RGA5. This functional interaction involves formation of an RGA4/RGA5 receptor complex. By protein-protein interaction studies, I showed that complex formation involves interactions between the RA4 and RGA5 NB-ARC and LRR domains, in addition to previously identified interactions between the coiled-coil domains. AVR-Pia recognition seems not to induce dissociation of the RGA4/RGA5 complex but a ternary RGA4/RGA5/AVR-Pia complex could also not be detected consistently. How effector recognition is translated into receptor complex activation remains therefore to be elucidated in more detail in the future. Previous work has shown that a domain of RGA5 normally not present in NLRs and related to the copper chaperone ATX1 (RATX1 domain) interacts physically with AVR-Pia and may be crucial for effector recognition. The RATX1 domain was hypothesized to mimic the true host targets of AVR-Pia leading to the development of the ‘integrated decoy’ model that states that unconventional domains in NLRs act as decoys in the recognition of effector proteins. By detailed structure-informed analysis of AVR-Pia, I could confirm the pivotal role of the AVR-Pia-RATX1 interaction for effector recognition lending important support to the integrated decoy model. In addition, I could precisely characterize the interaction surface with which AVR-Pia binds to the RGA5 RATX1 domain. Finally, I detected interactions of AVR-Pia with other parts of RGA5, in particular the NB-ARC and the LRR domains. Based on these results, I developed a model that explains how such binding to several independent sites in NLRs leads to high overall affinity and robust effector recognition that is resilient to effector mutations. Taken together, this study provides important novel insight into NLR function and effector recognition and contributes by this to a better understanding of plant immunity which is crucial for generating durable disease resistance in crops.

La protection intégrée, qui vise à réduire l’usage des pesticides, est un défi majeur pour l’agriculture du XXIème siècle. Le développement de nouvelles approches agronomiques qui concilient environnement et agriculture est une condition indispensable pour l’agriculture de demain. Dans ce contexte, l’utilisation d’éliciteurs capables de mimer une attaque pathogène et de promouvoir un état de résistance chez les plantes face à des maladies représente une alternative naturelle à la lutte chimique. Ces éliciteurs sont nommés les stimulateurs de défense des plantes (SDP). Ils peuvent provenir de différentes sources et être extraits à partir de macroalgues comme c’est le cas des SDP à base de polysaccharides d’algues tels que la laminarine utilisée pour stimuler l’immunité de plantes agronomiques. Toutefois, l’exploitation de ces ressources dans leur milieu naturel et les difficultés de production liées à leur cycle de développement constituent des freins à leur utilisation. La valorisation des microalgues comme source de SDP pourrait permettre de s’affranchir de ces contraintes. Cependant la recherche et de molécules SDP chez les microalgues est encore peu abordée. Au cours de ce travail, le potentiel d’une culture de microalgue, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, à induire des réactions de défense chez les plantes a été évalué. Un broyat cellulaire a été appliqué sur des plantules d’Arabidopsis thaliana. Le caractère éliciteur de ce broyat a été testé et caractérisé par des approches microscopiques, physiologiques et moléculaires. Les résultats ont montré que les plantes traitées présentaient des niveaux d’expression des gènes PR-1, PAD3, ACS6 et WRKY40 et un niveau de protection contre la bactérie Pseudomonas syringae DC3000 (Pst) plus élevés que les plantes non traitées. De plus, un effet bactéricide in vitro sur la bactérie Pst a été observé. Ces résultats offrent de nouvelles perspectives pour le développement de produits SDP d’origine naturelle capables de protéger les cultures. / Integrated plant protection, which aims to reduce the use of pesticide, is a major challenge for the agriculture of the 21st century. The development and application of new agronomic approaches is a prerequisite for crop protection in a sustainable agriculture system. In this context, the use of elicitors capable of mimicking a pathogenic attack and promoting a plant resistance state against diseases is a natural alternative to the use of agro-chemicals. These elicitors are also called plant defense stimulators (PDS). These can be obtained from different sources including macroalgae as it the case for the polysaccharide-based PDS laminarin that is currently used for the protection of a number of crops. However, the exploitation of these natural resources and the difficulties of their production due to their development cycle do hamper their use at a large scale. One of the possibilities to overcome these difficulties is the use of microalgae as a source of PDS. But this possibility and the potential of microalgaederived PDS for crop protection are currently under investigated. In the present work, we have used a cell extract from the microalgae Phaeodactylum tricornutum and assessed its defense response-eliciting activities on Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings by using microscopic, physiological and molecular approaches. The results show that treated plants exhibit higher levels of expression of the PR-1, PAD3, ACS6 and WRKY40 genes and a higher level of protection against the pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae DC3000 (Pst) than nontreated plants. An In vitro antibacterial activity on the Pst bacteria was also observed. Our findings suggest that P. tricornutum cell extracts are able to activate plant immune responses and offer new perspectives for the development of novel plant defense stimulators.

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