Submitted by Ricardo Cedraz Duque Moliterno (ricardo.moliterno@uefs.br) on 2015-10-13T22:42:35Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese_Renata Nat?lia_PPG_RGV.pdf: 4534182 bytes, checksum: 0d860c2ab1b6041788983d56cd000549 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-10-13T22:42:35Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese_Renata Nat?lia_PPG_RGV.pdf: 4534182 bytes, checksum: 0d860c2ab1b6041788983d56cd000549 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-07-24 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior - CAPES / The powdery mildew is one of the most important foliar diseases that attack the watermelon and other cucurbits in Brazil and in the world. The principal identification elements by the consumer are based on the external appearance and quality of the fruit. The objective of this study was to identify microsatellite markers linked to resistance to powdery mildew and to the stripe pattern of watermelon fruits with microsatellite markers. Plants of the parents, F1 and F2, which are the result of a cross between the cultuvars BRS Opara (powdery mildew resistant and with clearly defined stripes fruit) and P?rola (powdery mildew susceptible and with diffuse stripes fruit), were phenotyped in the field for resistance or susceptibility to powdery mildew and, after of the harvest, the fruits was morphologically characterized. For these characteristics, 116 microsatellite markers were analyzed and the linkage analysis done in JoinMap 2.0. Segregation in the F2 population demonstrated that resistance powdery mildew and the stripe pattern are controlled by a single dominant gene. The microsatellite loci MCPI_11, CYSTSIN and BVWS02441 showed linked to the powdery mildew resistance gene at 2.6 cM with LODs ?score? of 31.42 and are located in chromosome two of the watermelon genome. The microsatellite loci MCPI_05 and MCPI_16 showed a linkage to the stripe patterns of watermelon fruits at a distance of 1.5 and 1.8 cM with a LODs ?scores? of 39.28 and 38.11 respectively, and are located in the chromosome six of the watermelon genome. These markers can be used in the marker assisted selection process in watermelon improvement programs. / O o?dio ? uma das principais doen?as foliares que acomete a melancia e outras cucurbit?ceas, no Brasil e no mundo. Os principais elementos de identifica??o de uma cultivar pelo consumidor est?o relacionados com a apar?ncia externa e qualidade do fruto. O objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar marcadores microssat?lites ligados ? resist?ncia ao o?dio e ao padr?o de listras de frutos de melancia. Plantas dos parentais, de F1 e de F2, resultantes do cruzamento entre as cultivares BRS Opara (resistente ao o?dio e com padr?o de listras claramente definidas) e P?rola (suscet?vel ao o?dio e com padr?o de listras difusas) foram fenotipadas em campo para resist?ncia ou suscetibilidade ao o?dio e, ap?s a colheita, os frutos foram caracterizados quanto ao padr?o de listras. Para essas duas caracter?sticas foram analisados 116 marcadores microssat?lites e as an?lises de liga??o foram realizadas no programa JoinMap 2.0. A segrega??o da popula??o F2 demonstrou que a resist?ncia ao o?dio e o padr?o de listras de frutos de melancia s?o caracter?sticas monog?ncias e dominantes. Os microssat?lites MCPI_11, CYSTSIN e BVWS02441 mostraram-se ligados ao gene que confere resist?ncia ao o?dio a 2,6 cM com LODs ?score? de 31,42 e est?o localizados no cromossomo dois no genoma da melancia. Os microssat?lites MCPI_05 e o MCPI_16 est?o ligados ao padr?o de listras de frutos de melancia a uma dist?ncia de 1,5 e 1,8 cM com LODs ?score?de 39,28 e 38,11, respectivamente, e est?o localizados no cromossomo seis do genoma da melancia. Esses marcadores poder?o ser utilizados no processo de sele??o assistida por marcadores em programas de melhoramento de melancia.

Embora não seja reconhecido como um nutriente essencial, o silício (Si) reduz a severidade de oídios em diversas espécies vegetais quando acumulado na parte aérea. Contudo, apesar deste efeito benéfico ser amplamente relatado na literatura, ainda pouco se sabe dos mecanismos envolvidos. Este estudo avaliou o efeito das aplicações foliar e radicular de silicato de potássio, uma importante fonte de Si solúvel, na severidade de oídio e na indução de mecanismos de defesa pós-infecção em meloeiro. Os efeitos na doença foram avaliados em plantas inoculadas artificialmente ou naturalmente mantidas em casa de vegetação através da mensuração da dinâmica da epidemia e de seus componentes. Os resultados indicaram que tanto aplicações foliares como radiculares de silicato de potássio reduziram a área abaixo da curva de progresso da doença em 65% e 73%, respectivamente, comparadas ao tratamento controle sem aplicação. Tal redução foi resultado da alteração dos seguintes componentes epidemiológicos: eficiência de infecção, taxa de expansão da colônia, área da colônia, produção de conídios por área colonizada e taxa de progresso da epidemia. Contudo, a aplicação radicular foi mais eficiente que a foliar em atrasar o início da epidemia e em reduzir todos os componentes epidemiológicos, exceto a eficiência de infecção. A maior eficiência do silicato de potássio quando aplicado via raiz decorreu da maior concentração foliar do Si, a qual induziu uma antecipação (efeito priming) e um aumento da intensidade de expressão de mecanismos de defesa, fenômenos que não foram detectados no tratamento foliar. A aplicação radicular resultou na alteração de enzimas envolvidas na produção e catabolismo de espécies reativas de oxigênio, onde foi verificado aumento na atividade das enzimas superóxido dismutases e redução na atividade das enzimas catalases, principalmente nas primeiras 96 horas após a inoculação. O efeito priming também foi observado para as enzimas peroxidases, 1,3(4)-glucanases e quitinases e para o acúmulo de compostos fenólicos. Neste tratamento também ocorreu aumento na concentração de lignina em resposta à inoculação, contudo a concentração de malondialdeído foi reduzida, indicando que o Si aplicado nesta forma aliviou o estresse oxidativo sobre os lipídeos das membranas celulares da planta. Por outro lado, quando o silicato de potássio foi aplicado via foliar apenas a deposição de lignina aumentou comparado ao tratamento controle. Assim, depreende-se que os mecanismos de atuação do Si no controle da doença quando aplicado nesta forma, são distintos e envolvem, segundo a literatura, a formação de uma barreira físicoquímica sobre a cutícula resultado da polimerização do silicato de potássio. Tomados em conjunto, os resultados deste estudo evidenciaram que o Si tem papel ativo na modulação do sistema de defesa da planta, mas que sua efetividade depende de sua presença na forma solúvel no interior da planta, obtido por meio de sua absorção via raiz. Não obstante, os efeitos do silicato de potássio aqui relatados permitem concluir que a incorporação do produto a um sistema de manejo integrado, principalmente se fornecido via sistema radicular, terá efeitos positivos tanto na redução da epidemia de oídio como no meio ambiente, neste caso em função da redução no uso de fungicidas. / Silicon (Si) is not considered an essential nutrient of plants, but when it accumulates in the shoots it reduces powdery mildew severity on several species. However, despite this beneficial effect being widely reported in the literature, the mechanisms involved are still little understood. In this study, the effects of both foliar and root applications of potassium silicate, an important soluble source of Si, on the severity of powdery mildew and on the induction of postinfection defense mechanisms of melon were evaluated. Treatment effects were assessed by measuring the epidemics dynamic and its components in both artificially and naturally inoculated plants kept in the greenhouse. Results showed that the area under the disease progress curve was reduced by 65% and 73%, respectively by foliar and root application of potassium silicate, compared to control plants that were not supplied with potassium silicate. This effect accrued from the reduction of the infection efficiency, colony expansion rate, colony area, conidia production per colonized area and the epidemic progress rate. However, root application was more effective than foliar application on both delaying the onset of the epidemic and reducing most epidemic components, except for the infection efficiency. The greater efficiency of potassium silicate in controlling the disease when supplied via roots by irrigation correlated with higher foliar concentrations of Si which induced both a priming effect and increased expression of key defense responses. These phenomena, however, were not observed when potassium silicate was sprayed on leaves. Root supply of Si altered the activity of enzymes involved in the production and catabolism of reactive oxygen species, resulting in the increased activity of superoxide dismutase and reduced activity of catalases mainly in the first 96 hours after inoculation. Root application also primed the activity of peroxidases, 1,3(4)-glucanases, chitinases and the accumulation of phenolic compounds. Lignin concentration also increased in response to inoculation while the concentration of malondialdeide reduced indicating that Si decreased the oxidation of lipids of the plant cell membranes. In contrast, when Si was sprayed on the leaves, only an increase in lignin deposition was observed compared to the control treatment. Thus, it appears that the mechanisms of powdery mildew control in this case are distinct and, according to literature data, could include the formation of a physical-chemical barrier on the cuticle as the result of potassium silicate polymerization. Taken together, the results showed that Si plays an active role in modulating the host defense system, but only when present in the soluble form inside the plant which can be achieved by root uptake. Nevertheless, the effects of potassium silicate reported here allowed concluding that the inclusion of this compound in an integrated management system, mainly if supplied via roots, will render positive effects both on reducing the disease in melon plants and on the environment, in this case through reducing the use of fungicides.

Embora não seja reconhecido como um nutriente essencial, o silício (Si) reduz a severidade de oídios em diversas espécies vegetais quando acumulado na parte aérea. Contudo, apesar deste efeito benéfico ser amplamente relatado na literatura, ainda pouco se sabe dos mecanismos envolvidos. Este estudo avaliou o efeito das aplicações foliar e radicular de silicato de potássio, uma importante fonte de Si solúvel, na severidade de oídio e na indução de mecanismos de defesa pós-infecção em meloeiro. Os efeitos na doença foram avaliados em plantas inoculadas artificialmente ou naturalmente mantidas em casa de vegetação através da mensuração da dinâmica da epidemia e de seus componentes. Os resultados indicaram que tanto aplicações foliares como radiculares de silicato de potássio reduziram a área abaixo da curva de progresso da doença em 65% e 73%, respectivamente, comparadas ao tratamento controle sem aplicação. Tal redução foi resultado da alteração dos seguintes componentes epidemiológicos: eficiência de infecção, taxa de expansão da colônia, área da colônia, produção de conídios por área colonizada e taxa de progresso da epidemia. Contudo, a aplicação radicular foi mais eficiente que a foliar em atrasar o início da epidemia e em reduzir todos os componentes epidemiológicos, exceto a eficiência de infecção. A maior eficiência do silicato de potássio quando aplicado via raiz decorreu da maior concentração foliar do Si, a qual induziu uma antecipação (efeito priming) e um aumento da intensidade de expressão de mecanismos de defesa, fenômenos que não foram detectados no tratamento foliar. A aplicação radicular resultou na alteração de enzimas envolvidas na produção e catabolismo de espécies reativas de oxigênio, onde foi verificado aumento na atividade das enzimas superóxido dismutases e redução na atividade das enzimas catalases, principalmente nas primeiras 96 horas após a inoculação. O efeito priming também foi observado para as enzimas peroxidases, 1,3(4)-glucanases e quitinases e para o acúmulo de compostos fenólicos. Neste tratamento também ocorreu aumento na concentração de lignina em resposta à inoculação, contudo a concentração de malondialdeído foi reduzida, indicando que o Si aplicado nesta forma aliviou o estresse oxidativo sobre os lipídeos das membranas celulares da planta. Por outro lado, quando o silicato de potássio foi aplicado via foliar apenas a deposição de lignina aumentou comparado ao tratamento controle. Assim, depreende-se que os mecanismos de atuação do Si no controle da doença quando aplicado nesta forma, são distintos e envolvem, segundo a literatura, a formação de uma barreira físicoquímica sobre a cutícula resultado da polimerização do silicato de potássio. Tomados em conjunto, os resultados deste estudo evidenciaram que o Si tem papel ativo na modulação do sistema de defesa da planta, mas que sua efetividade depende de sua presença na forma solúvel no interior da planta, obtido por meio de sua absorção via raiz. Não obstante, os efeitos do silicato de potássio aqui relatados permitem concluir que a incorporação do produto a um sistema de manejo integrado, principalmente se fornecido via sistema radicular, terá efeitos positivos tanto na redução da epidemia de oídio como no meio ambiente, neste caso em função da redução no uso de fungicidas. / Silicon (Si) is not considered an essential nutrient of plants, but when it accumulates in the shoots it reduces powdery mildew severity on several species. However, despite this beneficial effect being widely reported in the literature, the mechanisms involved are still little understood. In this study, the effects of both foliar and root applications of potassium silicate, an important soluble source of Si, on the severity of powdery mildew and on the induction of postinfection defense mechanisms of melon were evaluated. Treatment effects were assessed by measuring the epidemics dynamic and its components in both artificially and naturally inoculated plants kept in the greenhouse. Results showed that the area under the disease progress curve was reduced by 65% and 73%, respectively by foliar and root application of potassium silicate, compared to control plants that were not supplied with potassium silicate. This effect accrued from the reduction of the infection efficiency, colony expansion rate, colony area, conidia production per colonized area and the epidemic progress rate. However, root application was more effective than foliar application on both delaying the onset of the epidemic and reducing most epidemic components, except for the infection efficiency. The greater efficiency of potassium silicate in controlling the disease when supplied via roots by irrigation correlated with higher foliar concentrations of Si which induced both a priming effect and increased expression of key defense responses. These phenomena, however, were not observed when potassium silicate was sprayed on leaves. Root supply of Si altered the activity of enzymes involved in the production and catabolism of reactive oxygen species, resulting in the increased activity of superoxide dismutase and reduced activity of catalases mainly in the first 96 hours after inoculation. Root application also primed the activity of peroxidases, 1,3(4)-glucanases, chitinases and the accumulation of phenolic compounds. Lignin concentration also increased in response to inoculation while the concentration of malondialdeide reduced indicating that Si decreased the oxidation of lipids of the plant cell membranes. In contrast, when Si was sprayed on the leaves, only an increase in lignin deposition was observed compared to the control treatment. Thus, it appears that the mechanisms of powdery mildew control in this case are distinct and, according to literature data, could include the formation of a physical-chemical barrier on the cuticle as the result of potassium silicate polymerization. Taken together, the results showed that Si plays an active role in modulating the host defense system, but only when present in the soluble form inside the plant which can be achieved by root uptake. Nevertheless, the effects of potassium silicate reported here allowed concluding that the inclusion of this compound in an integrated management system, mainly if supplied via roots, will render positive effects both on reducing the disease in melon plants and on the environment, in this case through reducing the use of fungicides.

The use of biological control agents (BCAs) in the past has shown limited success as its application has often been done incorrectly, and in addition, management practices are rarely altered to incorporate BCAs. Criteria for the correct application of BCAs have been devised as part of the research, and companies selling these products may use the said criteria. Such application will ensure the correct BCAs are used and, more specifically, used under the correct conditions. The powdery mildew (PM) fungus is often seen to develop resistance to synthetic fungicides and, therefore, alternative control measures are required. BCAs as an alternative pose less risk to the environment, workers and the consumer. A pre-trial has been conducted with a range of BCAs to see if they can control powdery mildew (PM) in a greenhouse environment on hydroponically grown cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) plants using the variety Baccara that has only a moderate tolerance to PM. The BCAs have been compared to the control (synthetic fungicide: Bravo). Comparative work includes Coyier's model, which has been modified and adapted for these trials to determine the percentage of leaf area covered by the PM infection. Furthermore, the number of fruit harvested per treatment, kilogram yield, total mass of yield and average fruit mass is also used to determine the efficacy of the BCAs as these factors have economic significance to commercial growers. The pre-trial showed promise until the fertigation computer failed, resulting in a nutrient shortage and imbalance, confirming that BCAs alone cannot control PM. Synthetic fungicides were applied until control of PM and plant nutrition was regained. BCAs were re-introduced and used until the end of crop production. The confirmation from the pre-trial has led to the inclusion of silicon in conjunction with the BCAs in the two subsequent trials (Trials 1 & 2). Silicon was applied with the BCAs as a foliar spray on a weekly basis. In trials 1 and 2, the cucumber variety, Palladium, with a high genetic tolerance to PM is used, as this variety is suited to form part of the holistic approach used for trials 1 and 2. Trial 1 showed that treatment A, containing Streptomyces griseovirdis and Streptomyces aureofaciens, had the highest yield. Both of these are bacterial BCAs and demonstrated their adaptability to varied climatic conditions, notably when low humidity was experienced. In treatment B, Trichoderma harzianum strains, Rifai and Uppington, show the slowest rate of PM development. In trials 1 and 2, the best actual PM control was obtained by two fungal based BCAs (Trial 1, treatment C was Ampelomyces quisqualis) and (Trial 2, treatment B was Trichoderma harzianum strains, Rifai and Uppington), showing that fungal BCAs have a place for this application, but the growth-enhancing properties of bacterial based BCAs make economic sense and would make them attractive to growers. Treatment A (Streptomyces spp.) had the most number of fruit for the entire growing period and the best overall yield (kg yield) again. Two of the BCA / silicon treatments have marginally better PM control compared to that of the control (E) treatment, although not statistically significant. Treatment E (control) has the highest average fruit mass in this instance but does not have the highest yield (kg yield) when compared to treatments A and B, possibly due to the growth-enhancing properties of most of these BCAs. Therefore, most of these BCA treatments give fairly inconsistent results that vary possibly according to season, humidity and temperature, making it difficult to predict their efficacy. Using combinations or weekly alternations of these BCAs with extremes of climatic adaptation will probably be the most reliable method of obtaining consistent results. Bacterial BCAs are shown to have lower humidity requirements and produce the most consistent results in terms of fruit number, yield and fruit mass and a combination of bacterial and fungal based BCAs would possibly be the best as this would control PM and yet still have the growth enhancing properties from the bacterial based BCAs. From the research, it can be said that some BCAs in trials 1 and 2 produce results similar to that of the control in terms of percentage leaf area covered by PM and some are shown to have improved yields. Results produced from certain BCA treatments are thus equal to the control; yet provide an environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic fungicides. Silicon is listed as a beneficial element rather than an essential element; however, literature claims it to be highly effective in treating PM in cucurbits. Results from trials 1 and 2 show that control of PM is possible in most cases, when a holistic approach is used. This approach includes a cucumber variety with a high PM tolerance, optimum nutrition, cultural practices and silicon in combination with the BCAs. A complete change of management practices is necessary to implement such a BCA program. / Agriculture, Animal Health & Human Ecology / M. Tech. (Nature Conservation)

The use of biological control agents (BCAs) in the past has shown limited success as its application has often been done incorrectly, and in addition, management practices are rarely altered to incorporate BCAs. Criteria for the correct application of BCAs have been devised as part of the research, and companies selling these products may use the said criteria. Such application will ensure the correct BCAs are used and, more specifically, used under the correct conditions. The powdery mildew (PM) fungus is often seen to develop resistance to synthetic fungicides and, therefore, alternative control measures are required. BCAs as an alternative pose less risk to the environment, workers and the consumer. A pre-trial has been conducted with a range of BCAs to see if they can control powdery mildew (PM) in a greenhouse environment on hydroponically grown cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) plants using the variety Baccara that has only a moderate tolerance to PM. The BCAs have been compared to the control (synthetic fungicide: Bravo). Comparative work includes Coyier's model, which has been modified and adapted for these trials to determine the percentage of leaf area covered by the PM infection. Furthermore, the number of fruit harvested per treatment, kilogram yield, total mass of yield and average fruit mass is also used to determine the efficacy of the BCAs as these factors have economic significance to commercial growers. The pre-trial showed promise until the fertigation computer failed, resulting in a nutrient shortage and imbalance, confirming that BCAs alone cannot control PM. Synthetic fungicides were applied until control of PM and plant nutrition was regained. BCAs were re-introduced and used until the end of crop production. The confirmation from the pre-trial has led to the inclusion of silicon in conjunction with the BCAs in the two subsequent trials (Trials 1 & 2). Silicon was applied with the BCAs as a foliar spray on a weekly basis. In trials 1 and 2, the cucumber variety, Palladium, with a high genetic tolerance to PM is used, as this variety is suited to form part of the holistic approach used for trials 1 and 2. Trial 1 showed that treatment A, containing Streptomyces griseovirdis and Streptomyces aureofaciens, had the highest yield. Both of these are bacterial BCAs and demonstrated their adaptability to varied climatic conditions, notably when low humidity was experienced. In treatment B, Trichoderma harzianum strains, Rifai and Uppington, show the slowest rate of PM development. In trials 1 and 2, the best actual PM control was obtained by two fungal based BCAs (Trial 1, treatment C was Ampelomyces quisqualis) and (Trial 2, treatment B was Trichoderma harzianum strains, Rifai and Uppington), showing that fungal BCAs have a place for this application, but the growth-enhancing properties of bacterial based BCAs make economic sense and would make them attractive to growers. Treatment A (Streptomyces spp.) had the most number of fruit for the entire growing period and the best overall yield (kg yield) again. Two of the BCA / silicon treatments have marginally better PM control compared to that of the control (E) treatment, although not statistically significant. Treatment E (control) has the highest average fruit mass in this instance but does not have the highest yield (kg yield) when compared to treatments A and B, possibly due to the growth-enhancing properties of most of these BCAs. Therefore, most of these BCA treatments give fairly inconsistent results that vary possibly according to season, humidity and temperature, making it difficult to predict their efficacy. Using combinations or weekly alternations of these BCAs with extremes of climatic adaptation will probably be the most reliable method of obtaining consistent results. Bacterial BCAs are shown to have lower humidity requirements and produce the most consistent results in terms of fruit number, yield and fruit mass and a combination of bacterial and fungal based BCAs would possibly be the best as this would control PM and yet still have the growth enhancing properties from the bacterial based BCAs. From the research, it can be said that some BCAs in trials 1 and 2 produce results similar to that of the control in terms of percentage leaf area covered by PM and some are shown to have improved yields. Results produced from certain BCA treatments are thus equal to the control; yet provide an environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic fungicides. Silicon is listed as a beneficial element rather than an essential element; however, literature claims it to be highly effective in treating PM in cucurbits. Results from trials 1 and 2 show that control of PM is possible in most cases, when a holistic approach is used. This approach includes a cucumber variety with a high PM tolerance, optimum nutrition, cultural practices and silicon in combination with the BCAs. A complete change of management practices is necessary to implement such a BCA program. / Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology / M. Tech. (Nature Conservation)