This diploma thesis deals with 1) the preparation of biodegradable polymer films based on polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) and 2) their modification by lignin as an active additive. The motivation for this work was to prepare active packaging material for food packaging. Polymer films were prepared by blending of neat crystalline poly(3hydroxybutyrate) (P3HB) and amorphous polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). The lignin was isolated from grape seeds derived from grape pomace. The solubility of lignin in chloroform was improved by acetylation. The properties of the isolated lignin were determined by elemental analysis, ash content, and infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Lignin was used as an active additive for the modification of polymeric films prepared by solution casting of P3HB or P3HB blended with amorphous polyhydroxyalkanoate. The effect of different concentrations of lignin in the range of 1 to 10 % was tested. The lignin type and concentration had a different influence on the final thermal and mechanical behaviour of polymeric films. Lignin increased the values of the Young modulus and tensile strength of the prepared films. Differential scanning calorimetry data confirmed that lignin positively modified crystallization kinetics of P3HB. Thermogravimetry was used to analyse the thermal stability of PHA films. Lignin markedly increased the thermal stability of PHA films. However, acetylated lignin harms the mechanical properties of films. Moreover, this work showed that lignin isolated from grape seeds and added into PHA films proved its high antioxidant capacity. PHA films with lignin displayed much better gas barrier properties compared with PHA films without lignin. The prepared bioactive PHA films fulfil the requirements for sustainable food packaging with high antioxidant capacity and excellent gas barrier properties.

Diploma thesis is summarizing sources and technology of PHB and its physical and chemical properties compared to other polymers. Thesis mentions usage and function of certain additives in PHB matrix and their impact on the final product. Practical part of the thesis is concerned with technological parameters and degradation of the PHB during extrusion. The thesis also observes behaviour of nucleating agents on crystallinity and crystallization properties of prepared compounds. Degradation was analyzed by MFI and colour difference against standard material, FTIR was not successfully used for the purpose of degradation. Crystallinity and crystallization behaviour was analysed by DSC and optical microscopy with heated operating table. Graphs were created from results of analysis and suitable usage of each nucleating agent was considered. Boron nitride was selected as the most suitable nucleating agent due to creating higher amount of smaller spherulites.

Teoretická část této diplomové práce popisuje vlastnosti a možnosti modifikace poly(3-hydroxybutyrátu) (PHB) a amorfní poly(mléčné kyseliny) (PLA) a jejich směsí. V experimentální části je studována reaktivita Joncrylu, Raschigu a fosfitových činidel trifenylfosfitu, tris(nonylfenyl) fosfitu a difenylisodecylfosfitu s čistým PLA a PHB. Raschig, oligomerní aditivum na bázi polykarbodiimidu, prokázal v množství 2hm. % zvýšení viskozity taveniny obou polymerů, a proto byl použit k přípravě směsí o pěti hmotnostních poměrech PHB/(PHB+PLA). Vzorky s Raschigem a odpovídajícími nereaktivními vzorky byly studovány pomocí reologie, gelové permeační chromatografie a modulované diferenční kompenzační kalorimetrie. Výsledky naznačily reakce Raschigu v PHB/PLA směsích vedoucí k rozvětveným strukturám. Rychlost reakce však není nedostatečná ke kompenzaci poklesu viskozity v důsledku degradace při zpracování. Následně zůstává nezreagované množství Raschigu v matrici. Na základě těchto zjištění se dospělo k závěru, že Raschig se chová spíše jako relativně účinný stabilizátor reologických vlastností, než jako činidlo pro záměrnou modifikaci struktury směsí PHB/PLA. Za účelem studia mechanických vlastností těchto směsí byly ve dvoušnekovém extrudéru připraveny vzorky plastifikovány acetyltributylcitrátem.

Lim klassificeras som ett ämne som kan hålla ihop två ytor så att de motstår separation. Dagens lim kan anpassas efter vilken applikation de ska användas till och kan ha ett stort antal olika egenskaper. De fysikaliska och kemiska egenskaperna av limmet är de viktigaste faktorerna för att bilda en bra limbindning. I stort sett alla syntetiska lim består idag av polymerer, varav de flesta är petroleumbaserade. För att skapa ett mer miljövänligt alternativ undersökte denna studie tillämpningen av poly(3-hydroxibutyrat- co-3-hydroxivalerat), PHBV med 36 eller 56 vikt% HV, som huvudkomponent i ett lim. Huvudfokus ligger på hur väl PHBV är lämpligt för användning som lim och hur olika tillsatser kan förbättra dess egenskaperna. Flera olika limblandningar innehållande PHBV, mjukgörare (sebacinsyra, dimetylsebacat, etylbutanoat eller tributylcitrat) och förtjockningsmedel (Abalyn eller Foralyn) skapades och undersöktes. Ett single lap skjuvtest utfördes med kopieringspapper, filterpapper och träpinnar som vidhäftningsmaterialet, medan ett avskalningstest undersökte användningen av kopieringspappersetiketter och plastetiketter på en glasflaska samt frukt.  Båda testen visar att kopieringspapper har de mest lovande egenskaperna som en adherent för användningen av ett PHBV-baserat lim, både för PHBV innehållande 36 vikts% och 56 vikts% HV. Denna slutsats kunde dras då kopieringspapperet påvisade den starkaste bindningen med limmet. Ren PHBV uppvisade lovande häftstyrka och vidhäftning som ett smältlim. Tillsatsen av sebacinsyra tillsammans med Abalyn eller dimetylsebacat med Foralyn ökade limmets häftstyrka ytterligare. Vi fann också att lim som skapats med PHBV med 36 vikt% HV ger bättre hållfasthetsegenskaper. Framtida arbete innefattar mer exakta mätmetoder för att bestämma egenskaperna hos limblandningarna. / An adhesive is classified as a substance that holds two surfaces together and resists separation. Today’s adhesives can be modified according to various application demands, obtaining a large variety of properties. The most important factors of forming a good adhesive bond are the physical and chemical properties. Essentially all synthetic adhesives consist of polymers, most of them being petroleum-based. To obtain a more environmentally friendly option, this study investigated the use of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate), PHBV with 36 or 56 wt% HV, as the main component in an adhesive. The main focus was to investigate on how well PHBV is suited for use as an adhesive and how different additives can improve the adhesive properties. Several different adhesive formulations containing PHBV, plasticizers (sebacic acid, dimethyl sebacate, ethyl butyrate, or tributyl citrate) and tackifiers (Abalyn or Foralyn) were created and investigated using various tests, such as single lap shear test, peel test, tackiness determination, optical analysis, and application testing. Single lap shear tests were performed using printing paper, filter paper, and wooden sticks as adherents, while peel tests explored the use of printing paper labels and plastic labels on a glass bottle and on fruit. It was determined that two PHBV adhesives, containing 36 wt% and 56 wt% of HV, performed best using printing paper as adherent. This conclusion could be drawn based on the good interaction between the adherent and the adhesive, thereby creating a strong bond. Pure PHBV with 36 or 56 wt% showed promising strength and tackiness properties as a hot-melt adhesive. The addition of sebacic acid together with Abalyn or dimethyl sebacate with Foralyn further increased the adhesive’s strength. It was also found that adhesive formulations created using a PHBV with a lower amount of HV (around 36 wt% of HV) yields better strength properties when used as an adhesive for paper labels. Future work involves more precise measurement methods to determine the properties of the adhesive formulations.

Conjugated polymers have attracted much interest as promising alternatives to inorganic semiconductors, due to their low-temperature, solution-based processability, which may provide for low-cost, large-area electronic device fabrication. However, commercialization of polymer-based electronic devices has been restricted owing to low device performance of solidified thin-films. In order to enhance charge transport of polymer semiconductor thin-films, the self-organization of organic polymer semiconductors into ordered supramolecular assemblies has been achieved by tuning a range of process parameters including film deposition method (spin vs. drop cast), solvent boiling point (low vs. high boiling point), polymer-dielectric interface treatment, and post-deposition processing (solvent vapor or thermal annealing). However, these strategies give rise to limitations for large-scale high-throughput processing due to associated pre- and/or post semiconductor deposition steps. Therefore, in this thesis, we identify alternative processing parameters (i.e., hydrogen bonds between good and poor solvents, UV irradiation to polymer precursor solutions, and combination of sonication and subsequent UV irradiation to polymer precursor solutions) which can contribute to enhancement in charge transport of a model polymer semiconductor, poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT), eliminating the additional pre- and/or post-steps mentioned above. Further, we understand of how the processing parameters effect intra- and intermolecular interactions of the polymer chains, micro- through macroscopic morphologies, and charge transport characteristics of the resultant films.

Dans cette étude, des copolymères à blocs rigide-flexible comprenant des segments donneur [poly(3-hexylthiophène) régiorégulier, (rr-P3HT)] et accepteurs d’électrons (C60) ont été synthétisés. L’auto-assemblage en masse de ces copolymères à blocs avait pour objectif d’atteindre des morphologies dont la taille des domaines coïncide avec la distance idéale de transport de l’exciton (~10 nm) en vue d’utiliser ces systèmes comme matériaux de couche active dans les cellules photovoltaïques organiques de type P3HT-PCBM.La maîtrise et l'optimisation des conditions de synthèse de rr-P3HT de fonctionnalité terminale bien définie nous ont permis d'accéder à différentes architectures de copolymères linéaires di- et triblocs, constitués de P3HT comme bloc rigide et de polystyrène ou poly(4-vinylpyridine) comme bloc ‘flexible’. La fonctionnalisation du bloc flexible avec des dérivés du fullerène (C60 ou PCBM) a ensuite été réalisée et ces copolymères utilisés comme additifs pour stabiliser la morphologie de la couche active des cellules solaires organiques de type P3HT/PCBM. Les caractéristiques photovoltaïques des matériaux ainsi préparés ont été déterminées et corrélées aux analyses morphologiques de la couche active. / The performance of organic photovoltaic cells mainly depends on the active layer nano-morphology. Rod-coil block copolymers (BCPs) are well known in their ability to self-assemble into well-ordered nanoscopic morphologies. BCPs containing electron-donor and acceptor segments are of particular interest for use in photovoltaic cells because electronic light-excited states exist over distances similar to the typical size of block copolymer domains (~10 nm). Therefore, we designed novel donor-acceptor BCPs to exploit this coincidence in dimensions. This thesis is focused on BCPs based on regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene) (rr-P3HT) due to its high hole mobility and good processibility from various solvents. Simplified and versatile syntheses of donor-acceptor rod-coil di- and tri- BCPs consisting of the donor block P3HT (rod) and polystyrene or poly(4-vinylpyridine) (coil) blocks to carry the acceptor C60 in different ways were developed. These materials were used as surfactants to stabilize the nano-morphology of reference P3HT: [6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) based devices. Photovoltaic characterizations were then tied to copolymer structural data with the help of AFM and a range of complementary characterization techniques.

Conductive polymers, since from their discovery, have become a prominent area of research and found many useful applications in all fields of our daily life. Examples are light emitting diodes, heat generation, chemical sensors and electro-active membranes. Polymer coated textile substrates give flexible and lightweight materials. One well utilized and thoroughly explored conductive polymer is poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) also known as PEDOT. Although there are different ways to produce PEDOT one of the most common is the VPP technique. The typical procedure when using VPP is to introduce the monomer vapor to an oxidant coated substrate so that it polymerizes on the surface of the substrate. Throughout this study, the VPP technique has been used to produce PEDOT on different textile fibers. Aim was first of all optimizing the process gaining low electric resistance, i. e. high conductivity, of produced coated fibers but also multilayer coatings of fibers. Outcome indicates some parameters not having a clear influence over the results while others had a more distinct impact. A noteworthy result was obtained by coating a substrate, namely lyocell fiber, multiple times with layers deposited directly on each other. This decreased the resistance from 5.1 (± 1.6) kΩ/10 cm to 1.0 (± 0.1) kΩ/10 cm, for one layer and multiple layers respectively. Adding 15 wt. % of the copolymer PEG-PPG-PEG to the oxidant solution decreased the resistance from 6.8 (± 1.2) kΩ/10 cm to 3.9 (± 0.8) kΩ/10 cm. Final conclusion is that among the ways, to improve conductivity for PEDOT coated fibers, applied in this study are best results obtained by multi-layer coating.

Esse projeto visa a melhoria das propriedades mecânicas e de processabilidade do Poli(3-hidroxibutirato) (PHB) para futuras aplicações. Foram preparados filmes de blendas de PHB por dissolução em clorofórmio. Poli(etileno glicol), com massa molar de 300 (PEG) ou 4.000.000 g mol-1 (PEO), foi misturado em proporções de 5 a 30 % em massa e análises termogravimétricas (TG), de calorimetria diferencial exploratória (DSC) e ensaios dinâmico-mecânicos (DMTA) foram realizadas para avaliar a miscibilidade da blenda. Foram também analisados filmes recém-preparados e filmes envelhecidos, para avaliar o avanço da cristalização e consequente alteração das propriedades dos filmes com o passar do tempo. Para isso foram feitas comparações visuais de imagens microscópicas da morfologia das blendas, obtidas através de microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV). As blendas foram analisadas quanto ao grau de cristalinidade através de análise calorimétrica (DSC) e de difratometria de raio-X. As curvas de DSC mostram uma redução da Tm do PHB com a adição de PEG e PEO, o que indica uma forte interação entre os polímeros. As análises de TG mostram uma etapa principal de degradação, evidenciando a miscibilidade entre os polímeros. A TG também mostra uma sensível redução na temperatura de degradação do PHB para concentrações acima de 10 % em PEG, o que é indesejável. Através do MEV nota-se que existe também uma segregação de fases que aumenta com o tempo de estocagem do material, levando à recristalização do PHB e sua consequente fragilização. A difração de raios-X nos mostra que a adição de PEG e PEO ao PHB traz uma redução considerável para a cristalinidade do sistema, e que o aumento de 5 % para 30 % no teor de PEG é responsável por apenas uma pequena redução na cristalinidade, mas uma considerável redução na recristalização sofrida pela blenda com o tempo de estocagem. As análises de DMTA mostram que as blendas possuem módulo de armazenamento similar ao de polímeros flexíveis, evidenciando uma efetiva tenacificação do PHB. Amostras utilizando PEO apresentam maior rigidez do que as amostras contendo PEG. / This project aims the enhancement of both processability and mechanical properties of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) for future applications. Films of blends of PHB and poly(ethylene oxide) were prepared by chloroform solution casting and evaporation. Poly(ethylene oxide) having molar mass of 4,000,000 (PEO) or 300 g.mol-1 (PEG) was blended in proportion of 5 to 30 wt %, Thermogravimetric Analysis (TG), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Dynamic-Mechanic Analysis (DMTA) were performed in order to evaluate the miscibility of the blends. As-cast and aged films were also compared in order to analyze the crystallization progress and the consequent changes in the blends properties due to the aging process. For this, visual comparison was drawn between microscopy pictures obtained through scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The blends have their crystallinity degree determined by analyzing their X-ray diffraction curves. The DSC curves show a reduction at the PHBs Tm as the mass percentage of PEG increases, indicating a strong interaction in between the polymers. The TG and DTG analyses reveal a single main degradation step, what denotes miscibility in between the polymers. The TG also shows a considerable reduction of the PHBs degrading temperature for PEG concentrations over 10 %, which is undesirable. Through SEM one can note a phase segregation that increases with storaging time, leading to further crystallization of PHB and its subsequent enbrittlement. The X-ray diffraction curves show that the PEG and PEO bring a considerable crystallinity reduction to the system, and that the increasing of PEG content from 5 to 30% has only a minor effect per se, though also a considerable reduction of the perfection undergone by the system with storage time. The DMTA shows that the blends have a storage modulus similar to the one of flexible polimers, hence showing an effective PHB toughening. Samples containing PEO are more rigid than those containing PEG.

Este trabalho descreve a eletropolimerização do poli-3-metiltiofeno (PMET) e da polianilina (PANI) sobre eletrodos de Au e Au modificados com monocamadas automontadas de dodecanotiol (SAMs-Self-AssembledMonolayers). As monocamadas automontadas foram caracterizadas por medidas de ângulo de contato de gota séssil e os aspectos de cobertura da monocamada sobre os eletrodos de Au foram estudados pela técnica de voltametria cíclica de potenciais em uma solução aquosa de K4Fe(CN)6/KCl, sendo obtidos os parâmetros relacionados a adsorção da monocamada sobre a superfície dos eletrodos de Au. A polimerização sobre os eletrodos de Au e Au/SAM foi feita pela técnica de voltametria cíclica e os resultados obtidos mostram que os filmes de PMET e PANI têm características de crescimento diferentes. Enquanto que para os filmes de PMET depositados sobre os eletrodos Au/SAM foi observada uma melhora no processo de eletropolimerização, para os filmes de PANI foi observado que a presença da monocamadaautomontada de dodecanotiol na superfície do eletrodo inibe o processo de polimerização. Os filmes foram analisados por microscopia de força atômica (AFM), o que revelou uma morfologia menos uniforme e com maiores valores de rugosidade para os filmes de PMET e PANI depositados sobre os eletrodos modificados Au/dodecanotiol / This work reports on the electrochemical synthesis of poly(3-methylthiophene) (PMET) and polyaniline (PANI) on bare Au and Au electrodes bearing a dodecanethiol self-assembled monolayer (SAM). The covering aspects of the SAMs were analysed by cyclic voltammetry experiments using an aqueous solution of K4Fe(CN)6/KC1, in which the parameters related to the adsorption of the monolayer on the surface of the electrodes were collected. Further, the SAMs were characterized by contact angle of sessil drop. The synthesis of polymers was carried out via cyclic voltammetry. Two distinct kinetics were observed during the electropolymerization of PMET and PANI. For PMET, an improvement in the electropolymerization process was observed when dodecanethiolmodified electrodes were employed, in comparison to the use of bare Au electrodes. On the other hand, PANI could be successfully synthesized onto unmodified gold electrodes, but not onto SAMsmodified electrodes, in which the polymerization process was inhibited due to the blocking characteristics of the SAM monolayer. As far as the morphological characteristics are concerned, both PMET and PANI films presented a lack of homogeneity and higher values of roughness for films deposited onto SAMs-modified electrodes, in comparison to the films deposited onto bare Au electrodes, as revealed by atomic force microscopy (AFM)

Les propriétés optiques et vibrationnelles du PEDT et de certains dérivés sont étudiées, au moyen de spectroscopies optiques : diffusion Raman, absorption infrarouge, absorption optique. Ces résultats permettent d'interpréter les modifications de structure électronique qui se produisent le long de la chaîne polymère lors du dopage électrochimique, et d'en proposer un mécanisme. Nous présentons tout d'abord une étude optique du polymère synthétisé par voie électrochimique, puis celle des propriétés d'un polymère résultant d'une synthèse chimique. Nous présentons également l'étude du polymère synthétisé à l'état neutre. Ensuite sont présentées la synthèse d'un composé intrinsèquement soluble, comportant une chaîne alkyle avec 14 carbones, et l'étude de ses propriétés optiques, afin de dégager l'influence de la chaîne latérale sur ces propriétés. Des calculs de dynamique moléculaire sont effectués afin de permettre une interprétation en termes de modes de vibrations de ces expériences, ce qui conduit alors à la proposition d'un mécanisme d'oxydation des polymères. L'étude de l'influence du groupement latéral sur les propriétés du polymère a été poursuivie sur d'autres dérivés comportant cette fois-ci une chaîne alkoxy. Enfin, nous présentons la synthèse de nanotubes de PEDT ainsi que les premiers résultats obtenus dans cette nouvelle orientation.