I investigated parasitic infection and immunocompetence in populations of introduced bird species in New Zealand (NZ) that had experienced a range of population bottlenecks (11-808 individuals), and compared these parameters to non-bottlenecked conspecifics in the United Kingdom (UK). My aims were two-fold; firstly to assess if population bottlenecks are linked to increased parasite loads and/or decreased immunocompetence, and secondly, to assess at what severity of bottleneck these effects become evident. I found that ectoparasite load (chewing lice, Order: Phthiraptera, Sub-Orders: Amblycera & Ischnocera) was significantly higher in the more severely bottlenecked species in NZ than in the UK, whilst this difference became non-significant at more moderate bottlenecks. The difference was mainly driven by the Sub-Order Amblycera. The prevalence of avian malaria (Plasmodium spp.) was significantly negatively correlated to bottleneck size within NZ, after controlling for body mass. Total leucocyte and differential lymphocyte counts were elevated in the less bottlenecked species that were infected with malaria, whilst the populations at the more severe end of the bottleneck spectrum did not exhibit such a response. Furthermore, heterophil/lymphocyte (HL) ratio (a parameter used as an indicator of environmental and/or immunological stress), was significantly raised in the more bottlenecked species when compared to their UK counterparts, and this difference was correlated with the size of the bottleneck. Immunocompetence was further assessed by the experimental challenge of six introduced birds species in NZ with the mitogen phytohaemagglutinin (PHA). Immune response to PHA was significantly correlated to bottleneck size, but in the opposite direction to that predicted; immune response was greater in the more bottlenecked species. However, this may be an indication of increased investment in immunity, due to increased parasite and pathogen pressure or differential investment in varying components of the immune system. Finally, the immune response to PHA was compared in nestlings of two species that had experienced very different bottlenecks (70 vs. 653). After controlling for ectoparasitic infestation, I found no difference between the two species; however, this finding may be confounded by interspecific competition. Overall, my findings suggest that more severe population bottlenecks may result in increased susceptibility to pathogens, and impact on the immune system. This has a number of implications for the development of conservation protocols, and future avenues of research are suggested.

I investigated parasitic infection and immunocompetence in populations of introduced bird species in New Zealand (NZ) that had experienced a range of population bottlenecks (11-808 individuals), and compared these parameters to non-bottlenecked conspecifics in the United Kingdom (UK). My aims were two-fold; firstly to assess if population bottlenecks are linked to increased parasite loads and/or decreased immunocompetence, and secondly, to assess at what severity of bottleneck these effects become evident. I found that ectoparasite load (chewing lice, Order: Phthiraptera, Sub-Orders: Amblycera & Ischnocera) was significantly higher in the more severely bottlenecked species in NZ than in the UK, whilst this difference became non-significant at more moderate bottlenecks. The difference was mainly driven by the Sub-Order Amblycera. The prevalence of avian malaria (Plasmodium spp.) was significantly negatively correlated to bottleneck size within NZ, after controlling for body mass. Total leucocyte and differential lymphocyte counts were elevated in the less bottlenecked species that were infected with malaria, whilst the populations at the more severe end of the bottleneck spectrum did not exhibit such a response. Furthermore, heterophil/lymphocyte (HL) ratio (a parameter used as an indicator of environmental and/or immunological stress), was significantly raised in the more bottlenecked species when compared to their UK counterparts, and this difference was correlated with the size of the bottleneck. Immunocompetence was further assessed by the experimental challenge of six introduced birds species in NZ with the mitogen phytohaemagglutinin (PHA). Immune response to PHA was significantly correlated to bottleneck size, but in the opposite direction to that predicted; immune response was greater in the more bottlenecked species. However, this may be an indication of increased investment in immunity, due to increased parasite and pathogen pressure or differential investment in varying components of the immune system. Finally, the immune response to PHA was compared in nestlings of two species that had experienced very different bottlenecks (70 vs. 653). After controlling for ectoparasitic infestation, I found no difference between the two species; however, this finding may be confounded by interspecific competition. Overall, my findings suggest that more severe population bottlenecks may result in increased susceptibility to pathogens, and impact on the immune system. This has a number of implications for the development of conservation protocols, and future avenues of research are suggested.

No description available.

Reintroduction of Anatolian mouflon population at Bozdag Protection &amp / Breeding Station to its former habitats(Emremsultan Wildlife Development Area in Ankara-Nallihan, and Karadag in Karaman) started in 2004. The magnitude of genetic change among Bozdag and reintroduced populations was evaluated by 11 microsatellite loci. Study populations revealed close results (&plusmn / st.dev.) &ndash / Bozdag population: nk = 2.9091 (&plusmn / 1.1362), AE = 2.0250 (&plusmn / 0.9537), Ho = 0.3830 (&plusmn / 0.2717), He = 0.3956 (&plusmn / 0.2746) / Nallihan population: nk = 2.9091 (&plusmn / 1.1362), AE = 2.0592 (&plusmn / 0.9451), Ho = 0.4086 (&plusmn / 0.2977), He = 0.4052 (&plusmn / 0.2767) / and Karadag population: nk = 2.5455 (&plusmn / 1.1282), AE = 1.8809 (&plusmn / 0.8758), Ho = 0.3388 (&plusmn / 0.2775), He = 0.3607 (&plusmn / 0.2716). Population differences for major genetic parameters were not significant (p &gt / 0.05) by comparisons with paired t-test. Also, temporal change in genetic diversity for Bozdag population was investigated by comparison with temporal data. Temporal changes in genetic parameters were found to be not significant and possible causes for differences were argued. Additionally, genetic diversity and PI computations for different traps were verified and compared to uncover any potential bias due to the catching method. Comparisons did not reveal significant differences illustrating the homogeneity among traps. On the other hand, simulations detected the higher sensitivity of allelic diversity (A) to founder events than P and heterozygosity (Ho &amp / He) levels which supports heterozygosity excess method for bottleneck analysis. With the same simulation analysis, observed genetic diversity within reintroduced samples were found to be in the ranges of expectation (99% CI) indicating that translocated individuals were chosen randomly. Bottleneck analysis based on heterozygosity excess method (one-tailed test for heterozygosity excess: pSMM = 0.28515, pTPM = 0.06445, pIAM = 0.02441) and allele frequency distributions method (normal L-shaped) could not detect a recent genetic bottleneck for Bozdag population. However, simulations determined that these two methods are prone to type II error. Bottleneck detection failure for the study population is probably due to type II error instead of other sources of error like violations of model assumptions.

Dissertação(mestrado) - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande, Programa de Pós–Graduação em Oceanografia Biológica, Instituto de Oceanografia, 2013. / Submitted by Cristiane Gomides (cristiane_gomides@hotmail.com) on 2013-10-09T18:20:31Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Guilherme.pdf: 821439 bytes, checksum: 3a414dc4e5f970b5be2493d535705751 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Sabrina Andrade (sabrinabeatriz@ibest.com.br) on 2013-10-17T03:10:27Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Guilherme.pdf: 821439 bytes, checksum: 3a414dc4e5f970b5be2493d535705751 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2013-10-17T03:10:27Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Guilherme.pdf: 821439 bytes, checksum: 3a414dc4e5f970b5be2493d535705751 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / A ordem Phaethontiformes é composta por três espécies de aves marinhas, todas agrupadas no gênero Phaethon, as quais não possuem dimorfismo sexual aparente. No Brasil, P. aethereus e P. lepturus nidificam nos arquipélagos dos Abrolhos (BA) e de Fernando de Noronha (PE), e encontram-se na lista brasileira de espécies ameaçadas de extinção. Este trabalho teve como objetivos testar a existência de dimorfismo sexual de tamanho nessas duas espécies, gerar equações discriminantes para a determinação sexual com base em morfometria, verificar a variabilidade genética das populações de ambas as espécies, testar a ocorrência do efeito de gargalo populacional, e a conectividade intraespecífica entre as populações que nidificam nos dois arquipélagos estudados. Para a análise de dimorfismo sexual foram utilizadas oito variáveis morfométricas e realizada a determinação sexual pelo método molecular, para verificar diferenças intersexuais univariadas. A partir desses dados, foram ajustados modelos lineares generalizados, com o maior poder discriminatório possível. As informações genéticas foram obtidas através da amplificação e genotipagem de 11 loci de microssatélites, acessando índices de diversidade genética, distribuição das frequências alélicas, e grau de relação entre as populações dos dois arquipélagos. Para P. aethereus foi identificado dimorfismo sexual significativo em quatro variáveis, com machos maiores que fêmeas, e ajustado um modelo com 73,4% de poder discriminatório. Para P. lepturus, apenas a corda da asa apresentou diferença intersexual significativa, com fêmeas maiores que machos, e o melhor modelo ajustado discriminou corretamente 70,4% dos indivíduos. Esses resultados representam as primeiras informações sobre dimorfismo sexual na ordem Phaethontiformes. A heterozigosidade média foi baixa para ambas as espécies, o que pode ser explicada pelos altos índices de endocruzamento. Não foram identificados indícios de eventos de gargalo de garrafa recentes. Não há relação intraespecífica entre os arquipélagos estudados, indicando estruturação populacional de ambas as espécies na costa brasileira. Os resultados ressaltam a necessidade de medidas de conservação que considerem a distinção genética entre as populações de cada arquipélago, de ambas as espécies, bem como a necessidade de estudos que abordem outras questões, como parâmetros reprodutivos e análise filogeográfica, visando a sua conservação. / The order Phaethontiformes comprises three seabird species, all grouped in the genus Phaethon, which have no apparent sexual dimorphism. In Brazil, P. aethereus and P. lepturus nest on Abrolhos (BA) and Fernando de Noronha (PE) archipelagos, and are listed as threatened by the Brazilian red list. This study aimed to test the existence of sexual size dimorphism in these two species, to generate discriminant functions for sex determination based on morphometry, to verify genetic diversity of populations for both species, to test the occurrence of recent bottleneck events, and to check intraspecific connectivity for both species between the two archipelagos. For the analysis of sexual dimorphism were used seven morphometric variables and performed sex determination by molecular analysis, in order to verify univariate intersexual differences. From these data, generalized linear models were fitted with the highest discriminatory power. Genetic data were obtained by amplification and genotyping of 11 microsatellite loci, accessing genetic diversity indices, distribution of allelic frequencies, and degree of relationship between populations of the two archipelagos. Males were larger in P. aethereus, significant for four variables, and fitted a model with 73.4% of discriminatory power. For P. lepturus only wing chord showed significant intersexual difference, with females larger than males, and the best fitted model correctly discriminated 70.4% of individuals. Such results represent the first information on sexual dimorphism in the order Phaethontiformes. Average heterozygosity was low for both species, which could to be explained by high levels of inbreeding. There was no evidence of recent bottleneck events in both species, as well as no intraspecific relationship between archipelagos studied, indicating genetic structuring for both species on the Brazilian coast. These findings highlight that conservation measures need to take into account the genetic distinctiveness of populations nesting in each island, for both species, as well as the need of studies that address other issues such as breeding parameters and phylogeographic analysis.

Abstract Many species and populations have perished as a consequence of human actions. During the last ~200 years, large carnivores have been almost completely extirpated from Western Europe. Large-scale wolf hunting started in Finland around the 1850s, and the population size quickly collapsed. The population was very small until the mid-1990s, when wolves started to regularly reproduce in Finland again. The wolf is an endangered species in Finland, and the biggest threat to the species’ survival is excessive hunting. In this doctoral thesis study, I inspected the genetic structure and diversity of the Finnish wolf population using neutral genetic markers. Almost 300 wolves from the contemporary Finnish population and over 50 wolves from the north-western Russia were analyzed with genetic methods. Additionally, the genetic history of the population was examined with the help of over 100 museum samples. The modern Finnish wolf population proved to be genetically as diverse as the non-endangered Eastern European and North American wolf populations. However, the genetic diversity decreased significantly during the study period (1995–2009), and was at its lowest level in the final phase of the examination. In tandem, the inbreeding coefficient rose to a relatively high level. Genetic sub-structures were observed due to social structures within wolf packs. The mean dispersal distances of wolves were approximately only 100 km. The Finnish wolf population is divided into neighbourhoods of related individuals, and their size substantially decreased during the study period. This pattern, together with the growth of the inbreeding coefficient, suggests that lost alpha individuals in wolf packs are replaced by their offspring. This study demonstrated that Russian and Finnish wolf populations are nowadays genetically differentiated. Gene flow between the populations is low, despite the geographic interconnection. Only a few possible immigrants from Russia into Finland were detected in the study. The effective size of the Finnish wolf population proved to be small, and was mainly below the often-considered critical size of 50. Historical analysis revealed that the Finnish wolf population was formerly genetically more diverse, more continuous with the Russian wolf population, and had a more than 90% larger effective size. On the basis of this study, the genetic status of the Finnish wolf population is worrying and needs to be monitored. The population should be substantially larger than today and/or the amount of gene flow higher, so that the population viability could be considered secured even in the short term. / Tiivistelmä Ihmisen toiminnan seurauksena lukuisat eliölajit ja –populaatiot ovat hävinneet. Viimeisten noin 200 vuoden aikana suurpedot hävitettiin lähes koko Länsi-Euroopasta. Laajamittainen sudenmetsästys alkoi Suomessa 1850-luvun paikkeilla ja kanta romahti nopeasti. Populaatio oli hyvin pieni lähes koko 1900-luvun, ja sudet ovat jälleen lisääntyneet yhtäjaksoisesti Suomessa vasta 1990-luvun puolivälistä. Susi on erittäin uhanalainen Suomessa ja merkittävin uhka lajin säilymiselle on liiallinen metsästys. Tarkastelen tässä väitöskirjatyössäni Suomen susipopulaation geneettistä rakennetta ja monimuotoisuutta neutraaleja geenimerkkejä käyttäen. Tutkimuksessa analysoitiin geneettisin menetelmin lähes 300 sutta nyky-Suomesta sekä yli 50 sutta Luoteis-Venäjältä. Lisäksi populaation geneettistä historiaa selvitettiin yli 100 museonäytteen avulla. Nykyinen Suomen susipopulaatio osoittautui tutkimuksessa geneettisesti yhtä monimuotoiseksi kuin ei-uhanalaiset susipopulaatiot Itä-Euroopassa ja Pohjois-Amerikassa. Geneettisen muuntelun määrä kuitenkin laski tutkimusajanjaksolla (1995–2009) merkitsevästi ollen matalin tarkastelujakson lopussa. Samanaikaisesti populaation sukusiitoskerroin nousi verrattain korkeaksi. Susipopulaatiossa havaittiin sosiaalisista rakenteista johtuvia geneettisiä alarakenteita. Susien dispersaalimatkat olivat keskimäärin vain noin 100 km. Suomen susipopulaatio on jakautunut toisilleen sukua olevien yksilöiden naapurustoiksi, joiden koko pieneni huomattavasti tutkimusajanjaksolla. Tämä yhdessä sukusiitoskertoimen kasvun kanssa viittaa susilaumojen menetettyjen alfayksilöiden korvautumiseen jälkeläisillään. Tutkimus osoitti, että Venäjän ja Suomen susipopulaatiot ovat nykyisin geneettisesti erilaistuneet. Geenivirta populaatioiden välillä on maantieteellisestä yhteydestä huolimatta vähäistä. Tutkimuksessa havaittiin vain muutamia todennäköisiä immigrantteja Venäjältä Suomeen. Suomen susipopulaation efektiivinen koko osoittautui pieneksi ollen pääosin alle kriittisenä rajana pidetyn 50:en. Historiallinen tarkastelu osoitti Suomen susipopulaation olleen aiemmin geneettisesti monimuotoisempi, yhtenäisempi Venäjän susipopulaation kanssa ja efektiiviseltä kooltaan yli 90 % nykyistä suurempi. Tutkimuksen perusteella Suomen susipopulaation geneettinen tila on huolestuttava ja tarvitsee seurantaa. Populaation tulisi olla nykyistä huomattavasti suurempi ja/tai geenivirran määrän korkeampi, jotta populaation elinvoimaisuuden voitaisiin katsoa olevan turvattu edes lyhyellä aikavälillä.

Abstract Spatial and temporal variation is a universal feature in most organisms in nature, commonly reflecting the past evolutionary history of the species as well as the prevailing environmental conditions. The purpose of this doctoral thesis study was to investigate the genetic and phenotypic variation, and to assess the roles of the different processes affecting them in the moose (Alces alces). Altogether 809 DNA samples of moose, gathered throughout Finland and the Republic of Karelia in Russia, were analysed with a variety of population genetic methods. Furthermore, the shape of the moose mandible was investigated with the help of geometric morphometrics using a subset of samples gathered from 179 moose in Finland. This study showed that the Finnish and especially the Karelian moose population harboured relatively high genetic diversity, albeit with clear regional differences in its spatial distribution. In the northern half of Finland, a secondary contact of two diverged mitochondrial lineages was revealed. The presence of the two lineages was interpreted to reflect the existence of allopatric refugia of moose during the Last Glacial Maximum and the subsequent bi-directional recolonisation of Fennoscandia. Furthermore, a spatially explicit Bayesian clustering analysis suggested existence of three genetic clusters, which were estimated to have split after the post-glacial recolonisation. The results also showed that past declines in the moose numbers during the 18th and 19th centuries led to population bottlenecks, leaving a genetic imprint. Thus, the present moose population in eastern Fennoscandia carries the signs of both ancient and more recent events in its genetic composition. Finally, a significant latitudinal shift was revealed in the shape of the moose mandible. The pattern was considered independent of the genetic clustering of the population. The main changes included an enlargement of the attachment surfaces of the muscles controlling biting and mastication, implying more effective mastication in the north compared with the south, possibly an adaptive response to a longer period of hard wintertime diet. The results of this thesis encourage continuation of studies on the moose in order to fully reveal the impact of particular historical events and especially anthropogenic factors on the genetic and phenotypic variation of this species. They also provide the starting point for ‘genetically enlightened’ moose management and conservation in Finland. / Tiivistelmä Lähes kaikilla eliölajeilla esiintyy ajallista ja paikallista muuntelua, joka on seurausta lajin evolutiivisesta historiasta ja vallitsevista ympäristöoloista. Tässä väitöskirjatutkimuksessa tutkin hirven (Alces alces) geneettistä ja fenotyyppistä muuntelua sekä niitä selittäviä taustatekijöitä populaatiogeneettisillä ja geometrisen morfometrian menetelmillä. Geneettisen aineiston muodostivat Suomesta ja Venäjän Karjalasta kerätyt 809 hirven DNA-näytteet. Fenotyyppisenä ominaisuutena tutkittiin hirven leukaluun muotoa yhteensä 179 alaleuasta. Geneettinen monimuotoisuus oli tutkimuksen mukaan Suomen ja erityisesti Karjalan hirvipopulaatiossa verrattain korkea, joskin alueelliset erot olivat varsin selviä. Pohjoisesta Suomesta löytyi kahta erilaistunutta mitokondrion DNA:n sukulinjaa, joiden arvioin erilaistuneen viimeisen jääkauden aikana, todennäköisesti erillisissä refugioissa, ja saapuneen aikoinaan Suomeen eri reittejä pitkin. Tämän ohella tuman DNA paljasti lisää alueellisia rakenteita; bayesilainen ryhmittelyanalyysi havaitsi hirvellä kolme erillistä alapopulaatiota. Näiden ryhmien arvioin kehittyneen vasta Suomen uudelleenasuttamisen jälkeen. Tämän tutkimuksen tulokset osoittivat myös, että historiallisesti tunnetut kannanromahdukset 1700- ja 1800-luvuilla johtivat populaation pullonkaulaan, joka jätti jälkensä hirven perimään. Itäisen Fennoskandian hirvipopulaation geneettiseen muunteluun ovat siis vaikuttaneet sen historian aikana niin jääkauden aikaiset kuin tuoreemmatkin tapahtumat. Tämän lisäksi hirven alaleuan muodossa havaittiin merkitsevä etelä-pohjoissuuntainen muutos. Tulosten mukaan purentaa ohjaavien lihasten kiinnityspinnat laajenevat pohjoista kohti siirryttäessä, mikä viittaisi siihen, että hirven leukojen puruvoima on pohjoisessa suurempi kuin etelässä. Ilmiö oli riippumaton populaation geneettisestä ryhmittyneisyydestä, ja se on mahdollisesti seurausta kovemman talviruokavalion aiheuttamasta adaptiivisesta vasteesta. Tämän väitöskirjan tulokset rohkaisevat jatkamaan aiheen tutkimusta, jotta eri historiallisten tapahtumien sekä eritoten ihmisvaikutuksen merkitys lajin geneettiseen ja fenotyyppiseen muunteluun voitaisiin selvittää perin pohjin. Lisäksi tulokset muodostavat lähtökohdan ’geneettisesti valistuneelle’ hirvikannan hoidolle Suomessa.

During the past century the Swedish otter (Lutra lutra) population showed a rapid decline in abundance and genetic diversity. Among the most affected areas was the southern province of Skåne. After prohibiting hunting of otters and banning harmful pollutants like PCB, Swedish populations slowly recovered. To some areas the otter returned late, like Kristianstad in north-eastern Skåne. Here, the River Helge å enters Kristianstad’s Vattenrike, Biosphere Reserve and forms a biodiverse wetland. By 2011, otters had established once more along the river. In recent years, a female otter with cubs have appeared outside Vattenriket visitor’s centre “naturum”, to the joy of inhabitants and visitors. In Kristianstad, otters have become a recurring winter attraction. However, not much is known about this new population. For assessment of abundance and genetic diversity, microsatellite variation was investigated among now-living individuals from eleven sites in the Biosphere reserve, and stored museum samples from ten otters with origins in North-eastern Skåne. Using a non-invasive methodology, investigated DNA was extracted from faeces and muscle tissue from dead individuals. Multiple replicate screening was performed to detect errors in genotyping procedures. Results show the presence of three now-living individuals (two males and one female). Now-living otters and museum specimens from north-eastern Skåne were not closely related. Sampled individuals show Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium, but their heterozygosity is very low. Results suggest that, even though some individuals may remain undetected, low admixture of new genes may be a cause for concern. For long-term protection and management in Kristianstad’s Vattenrike, Biosphere Reserve, further knowledge is needed about our new and precious otter population. / Den svenska utterstammen (Lutra lutra) genomgick drastiska populationsminskningar under mitten av 1900-talet. Minskningen ledde till en förlust av genetisk diversitet i många områden, och bland de värst drabbade var Skåne. Uttern blev fredad från jakt och ett förbud mot det skadliga miljögiftet PCB infördes, vilket skapade förutsättningar för utterpopulationen i Sverige att långsamt återhämta sig i antal. Men uttern återvände sent till vissa områden, som Kristianstad i Nordöstra Skåne. Genom staden Kristianstad rinner Helge å, som formar vidsträckta, artrika våtmarker i Biosfärområde Kristianstads Vattenrike. Uttern visade inga tecken på återkomst till området förrän 2011. De senaste åren har en utterhona med ungar regelbundet visat sig vid besökscentret ”naturum”, till glädje för stadens invånare och besökare. Uttrarna har blivit en återkommande vinterattraktion i Kristianstad. Men kunskapen om den nya populationen är begränsad. För uppskattning av antal och genetisk diversitet, undersöktes mikrosatellitvariationer hos nu levande individer från elva lokaler i Vattenriket. För jämförelse inkluderades arkiverade prover från Naturhistoriska Riksmuseets ”Miljöprovbank”, från tio döda uttrar med ursprung i Nordöstra Skåne. Med icke-invasiva metoder undersöktes DNA som extraherats från avföring- och muskelvävnad. Multipel replikatanalys gjordes för detektering av eventuella fel i genotypningsproceduren. Resultaten visar förekomsten av tre nu levande individer i Vattenriket (två hanar och en hona). Det är dock troligt att en- eller flera nu levande individer kan ha undkommit identifiering. Individerna var inte nära släkt med museiexemplaren från Nordöstra Skåne. Studerade individer är i Hardy-Weinberg jämvikt, men heterozygositeten är låg. Låg heterozygositet kan bero på en låg genomblandning i populationen, vilket kan vara en anledning till oro och bör undersökas närmre. Det behövs ytterligare kunskap och studier för att långsiktigt skydda och förvalta den nya, värdefulla utterpopulationen i Kristianstads Vattenrike.