As the most common motor neuron disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) affects around 4 in every 100,000 people worldwide with reports of increasing prevalence over the years. Characterized by progressive degeneration of motor neurons, ALS patients suffer impairments of movement and typically die from respiratory failure 2-5 years after diagnosis. Curiously, ALS exists on a disease continuum with Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD) where 30-50% of patients will be diagnosed with both diseases. In FTD, degeneration of cortical neurons results in diverse behavioural changes including deficits in executive and social skills as well as language and memory. A central connection between ALS and FTD is TDP-43 (encoded by TARDBP), an essential DNA/RNA binding protein known to serve critical functions in numerous cellular processes. Despite mutations in TARDBP constituting a small percentage of familial cases, TDP 43 nuclear-to-cytoplasmic mislocalization is a pathological hallmark of most ALS-FTD cases. Therefore, therapeutic targets to rectify pathology and disease may be uncovered by identifying factors that regulate TDP-43. While it is currently established TDP-43 is ubiquitinated and phosphorylated in diseased states, our lab recently found TDP-43 is SUMOylated in response to stress. Of note, perturbations in the stress response are becoming increasingly implicated in neurodegenerations. Furthermore, TDP-43 plays critical roles in the stress response which become perturbed in ALS/FTD. We developed a TDP-43 "SUMO dead" mouse allele to gain an understanding of how disrupting this may contribute to the pathogenesis of ALS-FTD. Longitudinal characterization of the model explored behavioural and histological in vivo consequences following loss of TDP-43 SUMOylation. However, the phenotypes observed in the mutant mice were less robust in comparison to established ALS/FTD mouse models. Mutant mice did not have consistent differences in tests for similar outcomes, trials of the same test, or across age. Female mutant mice presented with early hyperactivity and disinhibition along with altered social grooming behaviour. At later age, these female mice developed impairments in spatial working memory. Male mice developed apathetic behaviour and motor deficits at the middle age timepoint. Histologically, various forms of pathological TDP-43 were observed in the absence of neurodegeneration. These data reveal that TDP-43 SUMOylation may play an important role in ALS/FTD pathogenesis.

Peptides are small proteins that are crucial in many biological pathways such as antimicrobial defense, hormone signaling, and virulence. They often exhibit tight specificity for their targets and therefore have great therapeutic potential. Many peptide-based therapeutics are currently available, and the demand for this type of drug is expected to continue to increase. In order to satisfy the growing demand for peptide-based therapeutics, new engineering approaches to generate novel peptides should be developed. Ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) are a group of peptides that have the potential to be effective scaffolds for in vivo peptide engineering projects. These natural RiPP peptides are enzymatically endowed with post-translational modifications (PTMs) that result in increased stability and greater target specificity. Many RiPPs, such as microcin J25 and micrococcin, can tolerate considerable amino acid sequence randomization while still being capable of receiving unique post-translational modifications. This thesis describes how we successfully engineered E. coli to produce the lasso peptide microcin J25 using a two-plasmid inducible expression system. In addition, we characterized the protein-protein interactions between PTM enzymes in the synthesis of micrococcin. The first step in micrococcin synthesis is the alteration of cysteines to thiazoles on the precursor peptide TclE. This step is accomplished by three proteins: TclI, TclJ, and TclN. We found that a 4-membered protein complex is formed consisting of TclI, TclJ, TclN, and TclE. Furthermore, the TclI protein functions as a central adaptor joining two other enzymes in the Tcl pathway with the substrate peptide.

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Several classes of antimetabolites have been developed for the treatment of cancer, including numerous inhibitors of nucleotide biosynthesis. N-(phosphonacetyl)-L-aspartate (PALA) and hydroxyurea (HU) are two antimetabolites that inhibit nucleotide biosynthesis; PALA inhibits de novo pyrimidine synthesis and HU inhibits the conversion of ribonucleotide diphosphates to deoxyribonucleotide diphosphates. Due to the similar mechanisms, it was thought that cancer cells would respond similarly to HU and PALA treatment. However, studies in this dissertation revealed strikingly different responses to either HU or PALA treatment in HCT116 cells. A cytoprotective S-phase arrest was activated upon HU treatment while PALA treatment failed to activate the S-phase checkpoint, resulting in p53-dependent apoptosis. The checkpoint effector kinase, Chk1, was not significantly phosphorylated during PALA treatment due to a failure to recruit ATR, the upstream kinase, to chromatin sites. The post-translational modifications of p53, phosphorylation of serines 46 and 392, suggested that PALA treatment promotes the accumulation of a transcriptionally active p53 while HU does not. ChIP analysis showed that p53 bound to pro-apoptotic promoters, therefore activating p53-dependent apoptosis during PALA treatment. To gain more insight into these differential cellular responses, we developed a tandem-affinity purification (TAP) tagged p53 cell line in which a TAP tag was inserted into the C-terminus of the endogenous p53 genetic locus through homologous recombination. This technology allows purification of p53 with its protein binding partners at endogenous expression levels. The tagged p53 accumulated and bound to promoters in response to DNA damage similar to the untagged p53, suggesting that the TAP tag did not interfere with the normal cellular functions of p53. Using mass spectrometry, we can identify the different p53 protein binding partners in response to PALA or HU treatment. We can also determine the variable pattern of post-translational modifications on different drug-stabilized p53 and determine which modifications are responsible for promoting apoptosis versus cytoprotective arrest. We can then exploit the identified proteins and post-translational modifications in the development of new chemotherapeutic agents.

The complexity of all biomolecules in existence today can be attributed to the variation of the amino acid repertoire. In nature, 20 canonical amino acids are translated to form these biomolecules, however, many of these amino acids have revealed posttranslational modifications (i.e. acetylation, methylation) after incorporation. Amino acids that exhibit PTM are known for their involvement in cellular processes such as DNA repair and DNA replication; these PTMs are commonly found on histones within the chromatin complex. Utilization of in vivo site-specific incorporation has recently reported functionality of post-translationally modified amino acids.1 xii Here we report the synthesis and in vivo site-specific incorporation of the histone PTM, 2-hydroxyisobutyrl lysine (Khib), with the pyrrolysyl tRNA/ RNA synthetase system. This translational machine can better serve to probe Khib for functional benefits. Additionally, this thesis focuses much of its attention on the development of unnatural amino acids (UAA) with optogenetic characteristics. These UAAs, if site-specifically incorporated, can be used to control enzymes and proteins through rapid light perturbation (365nm UV light). Furthermore, discussed is the synthesis of photo-caged threonine and photo-caged serine as potential substrates for the pyrrolysyl translational machinery.

Ces travaux de recherche visent à mettre au point par une nouvelle « Approche Chimique Inverse » des antigènes synthétiques pour le diagnostic de maladies auto-immunes; utilisant les autoanticorps spécifiques de ces pathologies en tant que biomarqueurs.L'efficacité de ces peptides modifiés en tant qu'outils pour le diagnostic est évaluée par un screening au moyen de tests immunoenzymatiques (SP-ELISA), de sérums de patients atteints de pathologies auto-immunes sélectionnées.Trois maladies ont été étudiées en particulier.La cirrhose primitive biliaire est une maladie auto-immune cholestatique affectant le foie, caractérisée par une destruction progressive des canaux intra-hépatiques, pouvant mener à une cirrhose. Il existe des autoanticorps antimitochondriaux spécifiques à cette maladie qui reconnaissent un epitope lipoylé de la PDC-E2, protéine impliquée dans le cycle énergétique mitochondrial. La synthèse de sondes moléculaires lipoylées basées sur la PDC-E2(167-186) a été mise au point et optimisée. Les antigènes synthétiques ont ainsi été testés sur des sérums de patients de PBC. Les résultats montrent que: 1) la séquence a une importance pour la reconnaissance des anticorps; 2) la chiralité du dithiolane de la lipoyl-lysine ne semble pas avoir d'influence majeure sur la reconnaissance des autoanticorps; 3) l'absence de lipoylation sur le mime de la protéine native semble donner de meilleurs résultats que l'antigène synthétique lipoylé.Le diabète est une maladie caractérisée par une hyperglycémie provoquée par l'action réduite ou inexistante de l'insuline. L'excès de sucre dans le sang peut provoquer des modifications de diverses natures sur les protéines circulantes (glycation, O-glycosylation, N-glycosylation).La synthèse de sondes moléculaires portant ces structures en tant que modifications post-traductionnelles a été mise au point. Les antigènes synthétiques ont ainsi été testés sur des sérums de patients atteints de diabète. Les résultats montrent que trois des peptides testés permettent de différencier les patients atteints de diabète de type 1 (forme autoimmune) de ceux de type 2 (forme non autoimmune) ainsi que des controles sains.La sclérose en plaques est une maladie impliquant une démyélinisation des fibres nerveuses du système nerveux central. Le système immunitaire détruit les protéines composante cette gaine de myéline. La kynurénine est un des métabolites principaux du Tryptophane, et il a été montré que dans la sclérose en plaques, la voie métabolique du Tryptophane pourrait être déréglée.Ainsi, la synthèse de peptides modifiés portant une kynurénine comme modification post-traductionnelle aberrante a été menée à bien. Les résultats ne montrent pas de détection particulière d'anticorps dirigés contre cette modification dans le cas de la sclérose en plaques. / This research work aims to apply the novel concept of “Chemical Reverse Approach” to the design, the production, and the immunological screening of synthetic antigens able to specifically detect autoantibodies in sera of patients affected by immune-mediated diseases. Such specific autoantibodies are considered disease biomarkers and can be used to develop novel diagnostic/prognostic tools for the aforementioned pathologies.In particular, three diseases have been investigated.Primary Biliary Cirrhosis is an autoimmune cholestatic disease of the liver, characterized by progressive destruction of intrahepatic bile ducts. Specific antimitochondrial autoantibodies directed against a lipoylated epitope of the PDC-E2 protein, are considered relevant for the disease. The PDC-E2 protein is involved in the energetic cycle of mitochondria. Synthesis of lipoylated molecular probes based on PDC-E2(167-186) was carried out and optimized. These new synthetic antigens were tested on PBC patients' sera. The results showed that: 1) the sequence is fundamental for antibody recognition; 2) dithiolane lipoyl-lysine chirality does not seem to have any significant influence on antibody recognition; 3) the unlipoylated analogue of the native protein appears to detect a more relevant antibody titre than the lipoylated one.Diabetes is a disease characterized by hyperglycaemia. This condition is caused by the reduced or inexistent action of insulin. Hyperglycaemia can cause various modifications on circulating proteins (such as glycation, O-glycosylation, N-glycosylation).The synthesis of post-translationally modified peptides containing such structures was carried out. These new synthetic antigenic probes were tested on sera from patients suffering from diabetes. The results showed that three peptides among those tested can differentiate patients with type-1 diabetes (autoimmune form) from those with type-2 (non-autoimmune form) and healthy patients.Multiple sclerosis is a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. The immune system destroys proteins components of myelin sheath. Kynurenine is a major metabolite of Tryptophan, and it has been shown that in multiple sclerosis, the metabolic pathway of Tryptophan may be deregulated.Thus, the synthesis of modified peptides incorporating a kynurenine as an aberrant post-translational modification was carried out. The results show no specific antibody detection in multiple sclerosis sera.

Proteins and RNAs are two of the most versatile macromolecules that carry out almost all functions within living organisms. In this thesis I have explored evolutionary and regulatory aspects of proteins and RNAs by studying their structures, modifications and interactions. In the first chapter of my thesis I investigate domain atrophy, a term I coined to describe large-scale deletions of core structural elements within protein domains. By looking into truncated domain boundaries across several domain families using Pfam, I was able to identify rare cases of domains that showed atrophy. Given that even point mutations can be deleterious, it is surprising that proteins can tolerate such large-scale deletions. Some of the structures of atrophied domains show novel protein-protein interaction interfaces that appear to compensate and stabilise their folds. Protein-protein interactions are largely influenced by the surface and charge complementarity, while RNA-RNA interactions are governed by base-pair complementarity; both interaction types are inherently different and these differences might be observed in their interaction networks. Based on this hypothesis I have explored the protein-protein, RNA-protein and the RNA-RNA interaction networks of yeast in the second chapter. By analysing the three networks I found no major differences in their network properties, which indicates an underlying uniformity in their interactomes despite their individual differences. In the third chapter I focus on RNA-protein interactions by investigating post-translational modifications (PTMs) in RNA-binding proteins (RBPs). By comparing occurrences of PTMs, I observe that RBPs significantly undergo more PTMs than non-RBPs. I also found that within RBPs, PTMs are more frequently targeted at regions that directly interact with RNA compared to regions that do not. Moreover disorderedness and amino acid composition were not observed to significantly influence the differential PTMs observed between RBPs and nonRBPs. The results point to a direct regulatory role of PTMs in RNA-protein interactions of RBPs. In the last chapter, I explore regulatory RNA-RNA interactions. Using differential expression data of mRNAs and lncRNAs from mouse models of hereditary hemochromatosis, I investigated competing regulatory interactions between mRNA, lncRNA and miRNA. A mutual interaction network was created from the predicted miRNA interaction sites on mRNAs and lncRNAs to identify regulatory RNAs in the disease. I also observed interesting relations between the sense-antisense mRNA-lncRNA pairs that indicate mutual regulation of expression levels through a yet unknown mechanism.

La protéine Promyelocytic Leukemia (PML) est impliquée dans de nombreux processus cellulaires, et identifiée comme un suppresseur de tumeur. Cette protéine est le composant structural des Corps Nucléaires PML (CNs-PML) dont l'intégrité, compromise dans certaines leucémies, dépend strictement de sa SUMOylation. Ce projet de thèse visait à identifier de nouveaux régulateurs des CNs-PML, et par extension de la voie SUMO, en utilisant comme 'read-out' l'anatomie des CNs-PML, laquelle est extrêmement sensible au niveau de SUMOylation cellulaire globale. Ces travaux sont basés sur un criblage siARNs à grande échelle qui a conduit à l'identification de deux candidats SKP1et RBX1, tous deux faisant partie intégrante d'un complexe d'ubiquitine E3 ligase appelé " SKP1-CUL1-F-Box containing complex " (SCF). Nous avons pu démontrer l'implication de SKP1 et RBX1 dans la stabilité de la protéine PML avec des expériences de gain et perte de fonction. Nous avons également identifié FBXO9 comme la protéine F-Box capable de reconnaitre spécifiquement PML, causant son ubiquitination par le complexe SCFFBXO9, suivie de sa dégradation par le protéasome. En revanche, le site d'interaction de FBXO9 sur PML -tout comme la kinase impliquée dans ce processus de reconnaissance- restent encore à identifier. PML étant dégradé dans de nombreux cancers, il apparait essentiel d'avoir une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes post-traductionnels menant à sa dégradation. Ces travaux devraient à long terme permettre de révéler de nouveaux régulateurs des CNs-PML, et potentiellement permettre le développement de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques, visant à moduler les CNs-PML dans la cellule tumorale. / ProMyelocytic Leukemia (PML) protein is implicated in a number of key cellular processes, and was identified as a tumor suppressor. This protein is one of the main structural components forming the PML Nuclear Bodies (PML-NBs) whose integrity -compromised in some leukemias- is strictly dependent on PML SUMOylation. The goal of this thesis project was to identify new regulators of PML Nuclear Bodies, and by extension of the SUMO pathway, using PML-NBs, which are extremely sensitive to global cellular SUMOylation level, as a read out. This work is based on a high throughput siRNA screen, which led to the identification of two proteins, SKP1a and RBX1, which are both part of an Ubiquitin E3 ligase complex called SKP-Cullin-F-Box containing complex (SCF). We were able to show the involvement of SKP1 and RBX1 in PML protein stability through gain and loss of function experiments. We also identified FBXO9 as the F-Box capable of specifically recognizing PML, causing its ubiquitination by SCFFBXO9 complex and subsequent degradation by the proteasome. However, FBXO9 site of interaction on PML and the identity of the kinase implicated in this recognition processes are yet to be discovered. PML being degraded in numerous cancers, it is essential to acquire a better understanding of post-translational mechanism leading to the degradation of this tumour suppressor. In the long term, this work should, allow the discovery of new PML Nuclear Body regulators and potentially allow the development of new strategies aiming to modulate PML Nuclear Bodies in tumoral cells.