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Smart cameras operate mostly in sleep mode, which is light load for power supplies. Typical buck converter applications have low efficiency under the light load condition, primarily from their power stage and control being optimized for heavy load. The battery life of a smart camera can be extended through improvement of the light load efficiency of the buck converter. This thesis research investigated the first stage converter of a car black box to provide power to a microprocessor, camera, and several other peripherals. The input voltage of the converter is 12 V, and the output voltage is 5 V with the load range being 20 mA (100 mW) to 1000 mA (5000 mW). The primary design objective of the converter is to improve light load efficiency. A 3-level buck converter and its control scheme proposed by Reusch were adopted for the converter in this thesis. A 3-level buck converter has two more MOSFETs and one more capacitor than a synchronous buck converter. Q1 and Q2 are considered the top MOSFETs, while Q3 and Q4 are the synchronous ones. The extra capacitor is used as a second power source to supply the load, which is connected between the source of Q1 and the drain of Q2 and the source of Q3 and the drain of Q4. The methods considered to improve light load efficiency are: PFM (pulse frequency modulation) control scheme with DCM (discontinuous conduction mode) and use of Schottky diodes in lieu of the synchronous MOSFETs, Q3 and Q4. The 3-level buck converter operates in CCM for heavy load above 330 mA and DCM for light load below 330 mA. The first method uses a COT (constant on-time) valley current mode controller that has a built in inductor current zero-crossing detector. COT is used to implement PFM, while the zero-crossing detector allows for DCM. The increase in efficiency comes from reducing the switching frequency as the load decreases by minimizing switching and gate driving loss. The second method uses an external current sense amplifier and a comparator to detect when to shut down the gate drivers for Q3 and Q4. Schottky diodes in parallel with Q3 and Q4 carry the load current when the MOSFETs are off. This increases the efficiency through a reduction in switching loss, gate driving loss, and gate driver power consumption. The proposed converter is prototyped using discrete components. LTC3833 is used as the COT valley current mode controller, which is the center of the control scheme. The efficiency of the 3-level buck converter was measured and ranges from 82% to 95% at 100 mW and 5000 mW, respectively. The transient response of the converter shows no overshoot due to a 500 mA load step up or down, and the output voltage ripple is 30 mV. The majority of the loss comes from the external components, which include a D FF (D flip-flop), AND gate, OR gate, current sense chip, comparator, and four gate drivers. The proposed converter was compared to two off-the-shelf synchronous buck converters. The proposed converter has good efficiency and performance when compared to the other converters, despite the fact that the converter is realized using discrete components. / Master of Science

Over the last few years, the ever-increasing use of the new emerging wireless communication systems has imposed a considerable challenge in the development of novel microwave devices that can support the high bit rates and wide bandwidths demanded by the society. Moreover, other of the main goals of the current microwave components' designers is the fact that these devices can withstand the increasingly higher RF power requirements that must be considered at the output stages of transmitters. In this context, several physical phenomena should be analyzed in order to maximize the so-called power handling capability (PHC) in microwave components. In particular, this thesis focuses on the study of the corona discharge breakdown, since it is a physical effect that may limit the peak power thresholds (also known as peak power handling capability or PPHC) of microwave devices. In this regard, the main aim of this work is the proposal of several design strategies to achieve a considerable improvement of the PPHC in different filtering structures. In this sense, this dissertation is divided into two main parts. On the one hand, the study of the corona discharge breakdown will be first focused on microstrip bandpass filters, where the variation of the maximum electric field strength will be analyzed, and different solutions based on dielectric covers, rounded open-circuit terminations, an anticorona lacquer or a commercial adhesive will be thoroughly investigated and compared. The main objective will be the maximization of the peak power levels, while the degradation of the unloaded quality factor of the resonators will be minimized as far as possible. On the other hand, the second part of this thesis dissertation deals with a similar exhaustively analysis in groove gap waveguides (GGWs). Furthermore, different topologies of bandpass filters based on this technology will be studied, focusing also on the type of the electric field's polarization. In a similar way, several design criteria will be proposed for improving the PPHC of these components, thereby achieving a significant enhancement and reaching the same peak power thresholds of the counterpart rectangular waveguide devices. Finally, all the solutions described above will be experimentally validated in diverse measurement campaigns carried out at the European High Power RF Space Laboratory to corroborate the proper and good performances of all of them. / A lo largo de los últimos años, el uso cada vez mayor de los nuevos sistemas de comunicación inalámbricos emergentes ha impuesto un reto considerable en el desarrollo de novedosos dispositivos de microondas que puedan soportar las altas tasas de bits y amplios anchos de banda demandados por la sociedad. Además, otro de los principales objetivos de los actuales diseñadores de componentes de microondas es el hecho de que estos dispositivos puedan soportar los requisitos de potencia RF cada vez más elevados que se deben considerar en las etapas de salida de los transmisores. En este contexto, diversos fenómenos físicos deben ser estudiados para maximizar la denominada capacidad de manejo de potencia (PHC, por sus siglas en inglés) en componentes de microondas. En particular, esta tesis doctoral se centra en el estudio de la descarga de corona, ya que es un efecto físico que puede limitar los umbrales de potencia de pico (también conocido como capacidad de manejo de la potencia de pico o PPHC, por sus siglas en inglés) de dispositivos de microondas. Por ello, el principal objetivo de este trabajo es la propuesta de varias estrategias de diseño para conseguir una mejora considerable de la PPHC en diferentes estructuras filtrantes. En este sentido, esta tesis se divide en dos partes principales. Por un lado, el estudio del efecto corona se centrará en primer lugar en filtros paso banda en tecnología microstrip, donde se analizará la variación de la intensidad máxima del campo eléctrico, así como también se investigarán y compararán a fondo diferentes soluciones basadas en cubiertas dieléctricas, terminaciones en circuito abierto redondeadas, una laca anticorona o un adhesivo comercial. El objetivo principal será maximizar los niveles de potencia de pico, mientras se minimizará en la medida de lo posible la degradación del factor de calidad de los resonadores. Por otro lado, la segunda parte de esta tesis doctoral aborda un análisis exhaustivo parecido en guías de onda groove-gap (GGWs, por sus siglas en inglés). Además, se estudiarán distintas topologías de filtros paso banda basados en esta tecnología, centrándose también en el tipo de polarización del campo eléctrico. Del mismo modo, se propondrán varios criterios de diseño para mejorar la PPHC de estos componentes, consiguiendo así una mejora significativa y alcanzando los mismos umbrales de potencia de pico que los dispositivos equivalentes en guía de onda rectangular. Finalmente, todas las soluciones descritas serán validadas experimentalmente en diversas campañas de medidas realizadas en el Laboratorio Europeo de Alta Potencia en RF para corroborar el correcto y buen funcionamiento de todas ellas. / Al llarg dels últims anys, l'ús cada vegada major dels nous sistemes de comunicació sense fils emergents ha imposat un repte considerable en el desenvolupament de nous dispositius de microones que puguen suportar les altes taxes de bits i grans amplades de banda demandades per la societat. A més, un altre dels principals objectius dels actuals dissenyadors de components de microones és el fet que aquests dispositius puguen suportar els requisits de potència RF cada vegada més elevats que s'han de considerar en les etapes d'eixida dels transmissors. En aquest context, diversos fenòmens físics han de ser estudiats per a maximitzar la denominada capacitat de maneig de potència (PHC, per les seues sigles en anglès) en components de microones. En particular, aquesta tesi doctoral se centra en l'estudi de la descàrrega de corona, ja que és un efecte físic que pot limitar els llindars de potència de pic (també conegut com a capacitat de maneig de la potència de pic o PPHC, per les seues sigles en anglès) de dispositius de microones. Per això, el principal objectiu d'aquest treball és la proposta de diverses estratègies de disseny per a aconseguir una millora considerable de la PPHC en diferents estructures filtrants. En aquest sentit, aquesta tesi es divideix en dues parts principals. Per un costat, l'estudi de l'efecte corona se centrarà en primer lloc en filtres passabanda en tecnologia microstrip, on s'analitzarà la variació de la intensitat màxima del camp elèctric, així com també s'investigaran i compararan a fons diferents solucions basades en cobertes dielèctriques, terminacions en circuit obert arredonides, una laca anticorona o un adhesiu comercial. L'objectiu principal serà maximitzar els nivells de potència de pic, mentre es minimitzarà en la mesura que siga possible la degradació del factor de qualitat dels ressonadors. Per l'altre costat, la segona part d'aquesta tesi doctoral aborda una anàlisi exhaustiva similar en guies d'ona groove-gap (GGWs, per les seues sigles en anglès). A més, s'estudiaran diferents topologies de filtres passabanda basats en aquesta tecnologia, centrant-se també en el tipus de polarització del camp elèctric. De la mateixa manera, es proposaran diversos criteris de disseny per a millorar la PPHC d'aquests components, aconseguint així una millora significativa i els mateixos llindars de potència de pic que els dispositius equivalents en guia d'ona rectangular. Finalment, totes les solucions descrites seran validades experimentalment en diverses campanyes de mesures realitzades en el Laboratori Europeu d'Alta Potència en RF per a corroborar el correcte i bon funcionament de totes elles. / Work supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MCIN) and the State Agency of Research (AEI) through the Sub-Project C43 of the Coordinated Project PID2019-103982RB [MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033]. Aitor Morales-Hernández has received a fellowship grant from the University of Alicante [UAFPU2018-054].

For decades, the Silicon-based semiconductors have been the solution for power electronics applications. However, these semiconductors have approached their limits of operation in blocking voltage, working temperature and switching frequency. Due to material superiority, the relatively-new wide-bandgap semiconductors such as Silicon-Carbide (SiC) MOSFETs enable higher voltages, switching frequencies and operating temperatures when compared to Silicon technology, resulting in improved converter specifications. The current study tries to investigate the impact of emerging medium-voltage SiC MOSFETs on industrial motor drive application, where over a quarter of the total electricity in the world is being consumed. Firstly, non-commercial SiC MOSFETs at 3.3 kV and 400 A rating are characterized to enable converter design and simulation based on them. In order to feature the best performance out of the devices under test, an intelligent high-performance gate driver is designed embedding required functionalities and protections. Secondly, total of three converters are targeted for industrial motor drive application at medium-voltage and high-power range. For this purpose the cascaded H-bridge, the modular multilevel converter and the 5-L active neutral point clamped converters are designed at 4.16-, 6.9- and 13.8 kV voltage ratings and 3- and 5 MVA power ratings. Selection of different voltage and power levels is done to elucidate variation of different parameters within the converters versus operating point. Later, comparisons are done between the surveyed topologies designed at different operating points based on Si IGBTs and SiC MOSFETs. The comparison includes different aspects such as efficiency, power density, semiconductor utilization, energy stored in converter structure, fault containment, low-speed operation capability and parts count (for a measure of reliability). Having the comparisons done based on simulation data, an H-bridge cell is implemented using 3.3 kV 400 A SiC MOSFETs to evaluate validity of the conducted simulations. Finally, a novel method is proposed for series-connecting individual SiC MOSFETs to reach higher voltage devices. Considering the fact that currently the SiC MOSFETs are not commercially available at voltages higher above 1.7 kV, this will enable implementation of converters using medium-voltage SiC MOSFETs that are achieved by stacking commercially-available 1.7 kV MOSFETs. The proposed method is specifically developed for SiC MOSFETs with high dv/dt rates, while majority of the existing solutions could only work merely with slow Si-based semiconductors. / Ph. D. / Despite their mature technology and low manufacturing cost, the traditional Si-based power semiconductors had reached their limitations in operation from different points of view. The SiC MOSFETs which are the new generation of power semiconductors however seem to be able to shift the existing boundaries of operation for the Si-based semiconductors, resulting in significant improvement in design and operation of power electronics converters. This dissertation focuses on investigating the impact of emerging medium-voltage SiC MOSFETs on industrial motor drives, which consume over 28% of the total electricity used in the world. Firstly, the state-of-the-art non-commercial 3.3 kV SiC MOSFETs are characterized. Characterization of the devices is done to extract their key features such as switching and conduction losses, to enable loss calculation and performance evaluation in any target application. Since the mentioned devices are not commercial yet, the gate driving circuitry that can feature the best performance out of them are not commercially available either. Thus, the characterization process starts with design of an intelligent high-performance gate driver for the devices under test. Secondly, total of three topologies that are targeted for the study are discussed and their basics of operation is investigated. For this purpose the cascaded H-bridge, the modular multilevel converter and the 5-L active neutral point clamped converters are designed at three different voltage levels (4.16-, 6.9- and 13.8 kV) and two power levels (3- and 5 MVA). Selection of different voltage and power levels is done to enable comparison from different aspects as the operating point changes. Later, comparisons are done between the surveyed topologies designed at different operating points using different semiconductor technologies. The performed comparisons provide an unbiased input for the manufacturers and customers of these converters for selection of the target topology in motor drive application. Also to verify validity of the conducted simulations and calculations, a full-bridge converter cell is experimentally implemented using 3.3 kV 400 A SiC MOSFETs. Finally, a novel method is proposed for series-connecting lower-voltage SiC MOSFETs to reach higher-voltage devices. As of late 2017, the medium-voltage SiC MOSFETs are not commercially available. Also it is expected that upon commercialization, their price will be multiple times of that of low-voltage SiC MOSFETs. Thus, connecting lower-voltage SiC MOSFETs in series is an effective way of achieving higher-voltage devices and take advantage of superior properties if the SiC MOSFETs, while the availability and high cost problems are taken care of.

Les Piles à Combustible Microbiennes (PCMs) produisent de l’électricité à partir de la dégradation de matières organiques par des bactéries. Les PCMs sont considérées comme des micro- génératrices à faible tension et faible puissance. Dans le but de récupérer l’énergie électrique produite afin de pouvoir alimenter des capteurs autonomes, des architectures mettant en œuvre plusieurs piles seront préférées. L'association d'un grand nombre de PCMs individuelles offre des perspectives très intéressantes notamment au niveau de la production d'énergie électrique. Cela permet d’atteindre des niveaux de tension acceptables en sortie et permet de mutualiser les puissances électriques de chaque cellule. L’association série d’un grand nombre de PCMs est un défi en soi à cause des couplages hydrauliques (lorsque les PCMs partagent le même substrat) et à cause des non-uniformités entre générateurs qui mènent à une association non-efficace. Les circuits d'équilibrage de tension peuvent être une solution pour compenser ces inhomogénéités. Ils peuvent améliorer l’efficacité de l’association et prévenir le phénomène d'inversion de tension. L’association hydraulique des biopiles permet d’éviter la chute de puissance liée au manque de carburant. Une fuite de charge entre les PCMs va diminuer le rendement global de l’association. Le débit du flux doit être contrôlé pour éliminer ce problème. Un flux de la cathode vers l’anode provoque des pertes supplémentaires dues à la fuite d’oxygène. La récupération d’énergie à partir de PCMs nécessite une unité de gestion d’énergie qui adapte la tension et contrôle le fonctionnement de la PCM. Un convertisseur flyback à faible tension d’entrée, autonome et auto-démarrant a été conçu et optimisé pour la récupération d’énergie à partir des PCMs. La récupération d’énergie à partir des PCMs peut être présentée comme une source alternative pour éliminer les batteries dans les applications de faible puissance (capteur autonome). / Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) are bioreactors that convert chemical energy in organic compounds to electrical energy through the metabolism of microorganisms. Organic matters are widely available in the environment that contains a huge amount of energy. This energy could be harvested, converted, by the technology of MFCs, to be used in certain applications. Energy production of a MFC is limited in low voltage value and low-power values what limits the potential applications. To step-up the voltage of MFCs to be suitable for real applications, an efficient power management unit (PMU) is required with a specific design to deal with their characteristics. A flyback converter under discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) is the most adapted to such low-power source like MFCs, offers a simple implementation, and low losses conversion system. The flyback converter has a good efficiency that can reach 75% with one MFC and about 80% when it is supplied by a serial stack of MFCs. Associations of MFCs are very interesting to increase the output power and expand the domain of application. Parallel association is a method to increase the output current but it imposes limitations in conversion efficiency due to the low output voltage of the stack. Contrarily, the serial association steps-up the voltage what leads to better performance of the converter. However the non-uniformities between cells in a serial stack affect negatively the performance of the stack. Voltage balancing circuits are considered as the solution to compensate this phenomenon. In the switched-capacitor method, an external capacitor is used to transfer the energy from the strongest MFC(s) to the weakest one(s). The losses in the switched-capacitor circuit are less than the losses of the switched-MFCs. The switched-capacitor offers an efficient, simple, low consumption method to optimize the performance and prevent the voltage reversal of the weak cells. Integration of this circuit can optimize the efficiency. Continuous operation mode by hydraulically connection between MFCs can continuously refresh the substrate to give an autonomous energy harvesting system. On the other hand, in some applications, e.g. a wastewater treatment plant, MFCs could not be hydraulically isolated. In this configuration, a leakage charge between the associated MFCs will decrease the global efficiency. The flow rate has to be controlled to eliminate this problem. A flow from cathodes to anodes causes additional losses due to the oxygen leakage. A temperature sensor is continuously supplied by alternatively connecting two MFCs. Each MFC supplies the sensor for two days. The flyback converter is able to continuously supply the sensor from the energy harvested from one continuously-fed MFC. This could be a good example, in a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), to supply monitoring systems or also to supply low power applications of a building from a local WWTP.

The main goal of this thesis is to develop practical digital controller architectures for multi-phase dc-dc converters utilized in low power (up to few hundred watts) and cost-sensitive applications. The proposed controllers are suitable for on-chip integration while being capable of providing advanced features, such as dynamic efficiency optimization, inductor current estimation, converter component identification, as well as combined dynamic current sharing and fast transient response. The first part of this thesis addresses challenges related to the practical implementation of digital controllers for low-power multi-phase dc-dc converters. As a possible solution, a multi-use high-frequency digital PWM controller IC that can regulate up to four switching converters (either interleaved or standalone) is presented. Due to its configurability, low current consumption (90.25 μA/MHz per phase), fault-tolerant work, and ability to operate at high switching frequencies (programmable, up to 10 MHz), the IC is suitable to control various dc-dc converters. The applications range from dc-dc converters used in miniature battery-powered electronic devices consuming a fraction of watt to multi-phase dedicated supplies for communication systems, consuming hundreds of watts. A controller for multi-phase converters with unequal current sharing is introduced and an efficiency optimization method based on logarithmic current sharing is proposed in the second part. By forcing converters to operate at their peak efficiencies and dynamically adjusting the number of active converter phases based on the output load current, a significant improvement in efficiency over the full range of operation is obtained (up to 25%). The stability and inductor current transition problems related to this mode of operation are also resolved. At last, two reconfigurable digital controller architectures with multi-parameter estimation are introduced. Both controllers eliminate the need for external analog current/temperature sensing circuits by accurately estimating phase inductor currents and identifying critical phase parameters such as equivalent resistances, inductances and output capacitance. A sensorless non-linear, average current-mode controller is introduced to provide fast transient response (under 5 μs), small voltage deviation and dynamic current sharing with multi-phase converters. To equalize the thermal stress of phase components, a conduction loss-based current sharing scheme is proposed and implemented.

The main goal of this thesis is to develop practical digital controller architectures for multi-phase dc-dc converters utilized in low power (up to few hundred watts) and cost-sensitive applications. The proposed controllers are suitable for on-chip integration while being capable of providing advanced features, such as dynamic efficiency optimization, inductor current estimation, converter component identification, as well as combined dynamic current sharing and fast transient response. The first part of this thesis addresses challenges related to the practical implementation of digital controllers for low-power multi-phase dc-dc converters. As a possible solution, a multi-use high-frequency digital PWM controller IC that can regulate up to four switching converters (either interleaved or standalone) is presented. Due to its configurability, low current consumption (90.25 μA/MHz per phase), fault-tolerant work, and ability to operate at high switching frequencies (programmable, up to 10 MHz), the IC is suitable to control various dc-dc converters. The applications range from dc-dc converters used in miniature battery-powered electronic devices consuming a fraction of watt to multi-phase dedicated supplies for communication systems, consuming hundreds of watts. A controller for multi-phase converters with unequal current sharing is introduced and an efficiency optimization method based on logarithmic current sharing is proposed in the second part. By forcing converters to operate at their peak efficiencies and dynamically adjusting the number of active converter phases based on the output load current, a significant improvement in efficiency over the full range of operation is obtained (up to 25%). The stability and inductor current transition problems related to this mode of operation are also resolved. At last, two reconfigurable digital controller architectures with multi-parameter estimation are introduced. Both controllers eliminate the need for external analog current/temperature sensing circuits by accurately estimating phase inductor currents and identifying critical phase parameters such as equivalent resistances, inductances and output capacitance. A sensorless non-linear, average current-mode controller is introduced to provide fast transient response (under 5 μs), small voltage deviation and dynamic current sharing with multi-phase converters. To equalize the thermal stress of phase components, a conduction loss-based current sharing scheme is proposed and implemented.