University of Technology, Sydney. Faculty of Business. / Recent regulatory changes in developed economies have sought to apply uniform standards for corporate governance following a series of high profile corporate collapses between 2000 and 2002. The various regulatory responses raised questions in the governance literature on the appropriateness of a “one size fits all” approach. However, empirical outcomes in this literature do not provide a consistent picture on how, or even whether, governance choices vary with firm characteristics. This thesis addresses the lack in empirical direction by investigating the discriminatory power of a fundamental firm variable, the price-to-book ratio (P/B), that is often applied in Australian and other studies to predict governance outcomes. It evaluates how a joint price-to-book, price-to- earnings, firm classification (P/B, P/E) captures variations in governance choices by Australian firms and compares the results with those using a conventional P/B classification. Choices for two key mechanisms – the level of independence of the board of directors and the quality of its external auditors, are examined as they feature prominently in regulatory reforms. The results show that a joint P/B, P/E classification captures significant differences in the use of both mechanisms confirming that governance frameworks vary with firm characteristics. Consistent with expectations, these differences are recorded for board independence within high and within low P/B firms. Significant variations are also identified in the choice of auditor quality within both P/B classes of firms. By enabling a more parsimonious analysis of firm characteristics through the joint P/B, P/E framework, these results enhance our understanding of the choice of independent directors and high quality auditors. They also lend support to the general proposition that a “one size fits all” governance framework could lead to unnecessary costs for firms as they seek optimal governance arrangements that suit their specific information environments.

University of Technology, Sydney. Faculty of Business. / Recent regulatory changes in developed economies have sought to apply uniform standards for corporate governance following a series of high profile corporate collapses between 2000 and 2002. The various regulatory responses raised questions in the governance literature on the appropriateness of a “one size fits all” approach. However, empirical outcomes in this literature do not provide a consistent picture on how, or even whether, governance choices vary with firm characteristics. This thesis addresses the lack in empirical direction by investigating the discriminatory power of a fundamental firm variable, the price-to-book ratio (P/B), that is often applied in Australian and other studies to predict governance outcomes. It evaluates how a joint price-to-book, price-to- earnings, firm classification (P/B, P/E) captures variations in governance choices by Australian firms and compares the results with those using a conventional P/B classification. Choices for two key mechanisms – the level of independence of the board of directors and the quality of its external auditors, are examined as they feature prominently in regulatory reforms. The results show that a joint P/B, P/E classification captures significant differences in the use of both mechanisms confirming that governance frameworks vary with firm characteristics. Consistent with expectations, these differences are recorded for board independence within high and within low P/B firms. Significant variations are also identified in the choice of auditor quality within both P/B classes of firms. By enabling a more parsimonious analysis of firm characteristics through the joint P/B, P/E framework, these results enhance our understanding of the choice of independent directors and high quality auditors. They also lend support to the general proposition that a “one size fits all” governance framework could lead to unnecessary costs for firms as they seek optimal governance arrangements that suit their specific information environments.

As the existence of value premium has been showed in previous studies, this paper focuses on studying strategies for capitalizing this value premium in Swedish stock market. This paper studies the possible gains and risks of value investing strategies constructed with dividend yield, price-to-earnings (P/E) and price-to-book (P/B) ratios in Swedish stock market during 2006-2016.The findings show that the studied value portfolios offered abnormal returns during the studied time-period. Moreover, value stocks performed better than growth stocks when dividend yield and P/B-ratio were used as criteria. However, the paper could not confirm the same effect in P/E-ratio as high P/E tended to work better than low P/E. Out of the studied ratios, the best risk-adjusted returns were received from companies with the lowest P/B-ratios.The findings in this paper also indicate that including more ratio-based criteria in to an investment strategy does not offer more risk-adjusted returns.

The purpose of our study was to examine the relationship between the volatility of price multiples and the volatility of stock prices in the Swedish market from 2003 to 2012. Our focus was on the price-to-earnings ratio and the price-to-book ratio. Some previous studies showed a link between the price multiples and the volatility of stock prices, this made us question whether there should be a link between the volatility of the price multiples and the volatility of the stock prices. The importance of this subject is accentuated by the financial crisis, as we provide investors with information regarding the movements of price multiples and stock prices. Moreover, we test if the volatility of the price multiples can be used to create a prediction model for the volatility of stock prices. Also we fill the gap in the previous researches as there is no previous literature about this topic. We conducted a quantitative research using statistical tests, such as the correlation test and the linear regression test. For our data sample we chose the Sweden Datastream index. We first calculated the volatility using the GARCH model and then continued with our statistical tests. The results of our tests showed that there is a relationship between the volatility of the price multiples and the volatility of the stock prices in the Swedish market in the past ten years. Our findings show that the correlation coefficients vary across industries and over time in both strength and direction. The second part of our tests is concerned with the linear regression tests, mainly calculating the coefficient of determination. Our results show that the volatility of the price multiples do explain changes in the volatility of stock prices. Thus, the volatility of the P/E ratio and the volatility of the P/B ratio can be used in creating a prediction model for the volatility of stock prices. Nevertheless, we also find that this model is best suited when the economic situation is unstable (i.e. crisis, bad economic outlook) as both the correlation coefficient and the coefficient of determination had the highest values in the last five years, with the peak in 2008.

This Master Thesis deals with the usability of fundamental indicators for building a stock portfolio regarding chosen equities from the Prague Stock Exchange. The output of the work is finding that stocks with the lowest values of price to earnings ratio and price to book ratio make higher return than stocks with the highest values of these indicators. These stocks exceed latter with taking lower risk based on standard deviation of returns. The usability of indicators was confirmed by these findings. Another conclusion of this Thesis is finding that stocks with the lowest values of these indicators exceeded benchmark represented by PX-TR index.

企業價值受到資本市場的眾多投資人、公司股東或企業管理階層等等的高度矚目。企業價值評價的方法眾多，最理想之狀況是根據企業相關資訊而計算出的實質價值。然而實質價值難以估計，遂以市價(亦即股票價格或股價乘以發行股數)做為實質價值之代理變數。然而，考量不同公司，其發行在外股數多寡不一，為消除公司規模問題，本研究根據Ohlson(1995)提出之模型加以延伸，以市價/帳面價值比作為企業價值之衡量指標。 然而，企業價值究竟受到哪些因素影響呢？過去研究多偏向探討財務資訊與企業價值間之關係，一直到近期始開始注意到非財務性資訊對企業價值之影響。但仍缺少一個完整的邏輯結構，Kaplan and Norton(1992)提出的平衡計分卡提供了一個全面性整合的架構去評估組織之績效，以嚴謹的邏輯關係將財務與非財務層面之因素加以連結，透過計分卡的四個構面：財務、顧客、內部流程及學習與成長的層層推演，幫助達成組織之策略目標。而企業策略目標之達成，對於企業價值應有正面助益，故本研究以平衡計分卡之架構，討論我國資訊電子業企業價值之影響因素，探討欲提升企業價值可從哪些因素著手。 本研究以複迴歸方式進行分析，研究結果顯示：（一）財務構面的營業毛利成長率與股東權益報酬率與企業價值間有顯著正相關；（二）顧客構面的顧客滿意度與企業價值間有顯著正向關係；（三）內部程序構面的研發強度與企業價值間有顯著正相關；（四）學習與成長構面的員工生產力與員工教育程度與企業價值間有顯著正向關係。建議我國資訊電子業欲提升自身之企業價值，可從上述各因素著手努力。 關鍵字：企業價值、市價/帳面價值比、平衡計分卡 / Valuation of the firms is a considerable issue for investors, stockholders, and managers. The valuation methods are numerous, the most ideal one is intrinsic value which is calculated on the firm’s related information, such as dividend policy, profitability and growth etc. However, it is difficult to calculate the intrinsic value. The related research always substitute market value (stock price or stock price*outstanding shares) for intrinsic value. Considering the firm scale, this research followed the Ohlson model (1995), and chose the price-to-book ratio (P/B ratio) as the measure of the firm value. Anyhow, what are the critical factors influencing firm value? Most past researches focused on the relationship between financial information and firm value. Currently, the influence of non-financial information factors begins being emphasized. Yet, it still lacks a set of complete logical structure. “Balanced scorecard”, presented by Kaplan and Norton (1992), provides an integrated enterprise performance evaluation system. This tool logically connects the financial and non-financial factors and divides all the influential factors into four different “scorecards”, including “finance”, “customer”, “internal process” and “learning and growth”, in order to help the organization achieve its strategic objectives. Furthermore, the achievement of strategic objectives is supposed to have positive effect on organizational performance. Therefore, this research explores the influential factors toward firm value, utilizing “balanced scorecard”, and probe which factors can clearly increase the firm value. The research target sample is the information technology industry in Taiwan. The statistical analysis method in this research is multiple regressions. The research results are as follows. 1. In the finance perspective, “gross profit growth rate” and “return of equity” positively affect the firm value. 2. In the customer perspective, “customer satisfaction rate” positively affects firm value. 3. In internal process perspective, “research and development (R&D) intensity” positively affects the firm value. 4. In learning and growth perspective, “employees productivity” and “employees education level” positively affect the firm value. Hence, this research suggests the information technology industry in Taiwan can aim at the concluded factors to increase its firm value. Key words：firm value, price-to-book ratio, balanced scorecard

本研究以1997至2001年國內高研發密度之上市上櫃公司為研究對象，探討高研發密度公司揭露非盈餘以及智慧資本相關資訊之行為。首先探討企業揭露資訊之偏好及趨勢，再分析影響企業揭露非盈餘及智慧資本資訊頻率之因素，並探討企業股價與帳面價值間之差異及股票週轉率與企業揭露智慧資本相關資訊之關聯性。 實證結果發現，公司主動揭露與盈餘有關資訊之頻率有逐年下滑的現象，而揭露非盈餘及智慧資本相關資訊的頻率則有逐漸升高的趨勢。以分組檢定結果而言，未預期盈餘為正且幅度較大的公司在揭露智慧資本資訊方面顯著較未預期盈餘為負且幅度較大的公司積極。就影響企業揭露非盈餘以及智慧資本相關資訊之因素而言，未預期盈餘、員工每人營業利益、研發密集度，以及每人配備率與揭露非盈餘及智慧資本相關資訊之次數均呈顯著正向關係，而董監事持股比率以及用人費用率則與兩項資訊之揭露次數呈顯著負相關。 此外，屬於資訊電子業以及規模較大的公司，揭露非盈餘及智慧資本相關資訊之意願較強。就企業股價與帳面價值之差異以及股票流動性而言，資訊電子業之股價淨值比及股票週轉率均較非資訊電子業為高，策略聯盟（流程資本）資訊揭露次數與股價淨值比呈顯著正（負）向關係，新產品及策略聯盟（人力資本）資訊揭露次數則與股票週轉率呈顯著正（負）相關。 關鍵字：自願性揭露、智慧資本、市價淨值比 / Based on a sample of firm listed on TSE, this thesis investigates the voluntary disclosure behavior ofR&D intensive companies in Taiwan over the period of 1997 to 2001. With an emphasis on non-earnings and intellectual capital-related disclosure policies, we first explore the disclosure behavior in terms of frequency and type of information revealed by management. We then examine whether price-to-book (P/B) ratio and stock turnover ratio reflect the disclosure of non-earnings and intellectual capital-related information. The empirical results suggest a declining trend in disclosing earnings information, with an opposite tendency in non-earnings information over the period examined. In addition, unexpected earnings and variables proxy for intellectual capital determine the disclosure behavior of non-earnings and intellectual capital-related information. Firms with operating performance far beyond market's expectation tend to disclose more intellectual capital-related information than firms with operating performances far worse than market has expected. Variables such as operating income per employee and cost of human resource (proxies for human capital), R&D intensity (proxy for innovation capital), equipment per employee (proxy for process capital) as well as the ratio of directors' shareholding are found to be significantly related to the disclosure frequency of non-earnings and intellectual capital-related information. The findings also indicate that electronics and software industries are more likely to disclose more non-earnings and intellectual capital-related information and have higher price-to-book and stock turnover ratios as compared to other industries in the sample. Firms disclose more (less) strategic alliance (process capital) information is found to have higher price-to-book ratios. Firms disclose more (less) strategic alliance and new product (human capital) information is found to have higher stock turnover ratio. It appears that more disclosure on intellectual capital-related information does not necessarily and monotonously explain the variation in both price-to-book and stock turnover ratios. Key words: voluntary disclosure, intellectual capital, price-to-book ratio, stock turnover ratio

過去的實證研究指出，在討論當期的會計盈餘穩健性時，研究者必須要控制期初會計盈餘穩健性的水準。具體而言，期初會計盈餘穩健性與本期會計盈餘穩健性的負向關係，會稀釋我們對當期會計盈餘穩健性的解釋效果。基於這個理由，本研究以期初市價對淨值比做為期初會計盈餘穩健性的代理變數，去檢視我國1999年至2004年會計盈餘的穩健性以及探討盈餘穩健性與外資法人持股比例之關聯性。穩健原則之定義，係以 Basu(1997)模型做為衡量穩健性的指標。研究結果發現，我國企業近年來之會計盈餘存在穩健原則之特性，而期初市價對淨值比與盈餘穩健程度之間呈現顯著之負向相關。至於針對外資持股與盈餘穩健性之關聯性的分析，在控制期初市價對淨值比的影響之後，本研究未能找到外資持股比例之高低對盈餘穩健程度有顯著影響之證據。然而，在期初市價對淨值比最高的組別中，盈餘穩健程度與次期外資持股比例之間存在正向之關係。這個現象意味著對於期初盈餘穩健性很高的公司而言，其在當期之盈餘若相對較穩健，則次期之外資持股比例將會較高。但是，在本研究改以工具變數衡量外資持股比例之後，不論是當期或次期的外資持股比例，其與盈餘穩健程度之間則均未存在顯著之關聯性。彙總而言，利用1999年至2004年的資料，本研究發現，期初會計盈餘穩健性與本期會計盈餘穩健性有顯著的負向關係；無論有無控制期初會計盈餘穩健性，我國的會計盈餘均具有穩健性的特性；未能得到非常充份的證據去宣稱外資對於我國會計盈餘穩健性有系統性的影響。 / Prior empirical studies indicate that researchers have to control for the level of beginning-of-period earnings conservatism when discussing earnings conservatism in the current period. The negative association between beginning-of-period earnings conservatism and earnings conservatism in the current period will dilute the effect of our explanation of earnings conservatism in the current period. Using beginning-of-period price-to-book ratios to proxy for beginning-of-period earnings conservatism, this study examines earnings conservatism in Taiwan during the period from 1999 to 2004, and discusses the relationship between earnings conservatism and shareholding ratios of foreign institutional investors. The definition of earnings conservatism is based on Basu(1997). The empirical results show that earnings in Taiwan demonstrate the characteristic of earnings conservatism in recent years, and that beginning-of-period price-to-book ratios are negatively associated with the level of earnings conservatism. As for the analysis of the link between shareholding ratios of foreign institutional investors and earnings conservatism, this study fails to find the evidence that shareholding ratios of foreign institutional investors have significant impacts on earnings conservatism after controlling for the level of beginning-of-period price-to-book ratios. However, in the portfolio of the highest beginning-of-period price-to-book ratios, there is a positive relationship between earnings conservatism and shareholding ratios of foreign institutional investors in the next period. This result means that firms with the highest level of beginning-of-period earnings conservatism will have higher shareholding ratios of foreign institutional investors in the next period if their earnings in the current period are relatively more conservative. However, when this study uses the instrumental variable to measure shareholding ratios of foreign institutional investors, shareholding ratios of foreign institutional investors, whether in the current or next period, do not have a significant relationship with the level of earnings conservatism. In summary, using data from 1999 to 2004, this study finds that there is significantly negative association between beginning-of-period earnings conservatism and earnings conservatism in the current period, and that earnings in Taiwan demonstrate the characteristic of earnings conservatism whether controlling for the level of beginning-of-period earnings conservatism or not, but this study fails to obtain sufficient evidence to assert that foreign investment has systematic effects on earnings conservatism in Taiwan.

Background: There is a general belief that value stocks, historically, have created a greater return of investment compared to growth stocks. Investors can, through key ratios, compare companies to one another and thereby gain a solid appreciation whether a company is overvalued or undervalued relative to other comparable companies. The problem for investors is how to identify these value stocks and exploit mispricing in the market. Aim: The purpose of this study is to analyze investment strategies that are based on the Price-to-Book ratio on the Swedish stock market. Completion: To meet the purpose, the study is based on a deductive foundation with a quantitative method. Two investment strategies are investigated based on the Price-to-book ratio. The first strategy sorts the material following the value of the multiple, whereas the other strategy relies on regression analysis where interest on own capital is used as an explaining variable. Results: To only look at the price-to-book ratio, in order to distinguish undervalued stocks, does not work in the Swedish stock market during the period of 31-03-04 to 31-03-2015. It can be concluded that the combination used in the developed strategy works to identify value stocks that have a significantly higher cumulative return compared to the OMX Stockholm Price Index. / Bakgrund: Det finns en övertygelse om att värdeaktier historiskt har skapat högre avkastning än tillväxtaktier. En investerare kan genom värderingsmultiplar och nyckeltal jämföra bolag med varandra och skapa sig en uppfattning huruvida ett bolag är över- eller undervärderat relativt jämförande bolag. Problematiken ligger i hur en investerare skall identifiera värdeaktier och utnyttja felprissättningar på aktiemarknaden. Syfte: Syftet med studien är att analysera investeringsstrategier baserade på multipeln Pris/Bokfört värde på den svenska aktiemarknaden. Genomförande: För att uppfylla syftet utgår studien från en deduktiv ansats med en kvantitativ metod. Två investeringsstrategier undersöks baserade på multipeln Pris/Bokfört värde. Den ena strategin sorterar materialet utefter multipelns värde och den andra strategin genomförs med hjälp av regressionsanalys där räntabilitet på eget kapital används som förklarande variabel. Resultat: Att endast utgå från Pris/Bokfört värde, för att urskilja undervärderade aktier fungerar inte på den svenska aktiemarknaden under åren 2004-2015. Det kan fastställas att kombinationen i den utvecklade strategin fungerar för att identifiera värdeaktier som har en markant högre kumulativ avkastning jämfört med OMXSPI.

Some individual investors follow institutional investors in trading, a phenomenon called herding, that leads to excess market volatility and mispriced stocks. Individual investors who herded suffered from inferior investment performances and monetary losses, and the impact is broader in an individual investor dominant market such as Taiwan. Behavioral finance is the theoretical base of herd behavior. The purpose of this causal-comparative study was to examine individual investor herd behavior as related to characteristics of stocks in the Taiwan stock market. The research questions addressed what differences in individual investor herd behavior, if any, existed by market capitalization, price-to-book (P/B) ratio, and industry affiliation. The target population was the individual investors who traded in Taiwan Stock Exchange (TWSE) between January and December 2016. Participants were a purposive sampling of the target population with the exclusions of individual investors who traded illiquid stocks or exchange sanctioned stocks only. Data were collected through a subscription of TWSE data. The extent of individual herding estimated with Lakonishok, Shleifer, and Vishny's measure was 0.04. The 3 characteristics of stocks were separately and as a whole related to individual herding. The findings confirmed more serious sell-herding than buy-herding. The result from the logistic regression extended the knowledge of more serious herding in low P/B ratio stock with other variables controlled and different extents of herding by industry affiliation. The findings may improve individual investor financial literacy that may result in the positive social change of the alleviation of both herding and inferior investment performance.