Personal mobile devices (PMDs) initiated a multi-dimensional paradigmatic shift in personal computing and personal information collection fueled by the indispensability of the Internet and the increasing functionality of the devices. From 2005 to 2016, the perceived necessity of conducting transactions on the Internet moved from optional to indispensable. The context of these transactions changes from traditional desktop and laptop computers, to the inclusion of smartphones and tablets (PMDs). However, the traditional privacy calculus published by (Dinev and Hart 2006) was conceived before this technological and contextual change, and several core assumptions of that model must be re-examined and possibly adapted or changed to account for this shift. This paradigm shift impacts the decision process individuals use to disclose personal information using PMDs. By nature of their size, portability, and constant proximity to the user, PMDs collect, contain, and distribute unprecedented amounts of personal information. Even though the context within which people are sharing information has changed significantly, privacy calculus research applied to PMDs has not moved far from the seminal work by Dinev and Hart (2006). The traditional privacy calculus risk-benefit model is limited in the PMD context because users are unaware of how much personal information is being shared, how often it is shared, or to whom it is shared. Furthermore, the traditional model explains and predicts intent to disclose rather than actual disclosure. However, disclosure intentions are a poor predictor of actual information disclosure. Because of perceived indispensability of the information and the inability to assess potential risk, the deliberate comparison of risks to benefits prior to disclosure—a core assumption of the traditional privacy calculus—may not be the most effective basis of a model to predict and explain disclosure. The present research develops a Personal Mobile Device Privacy Calculus model designed to predict and explain disclosure behavior within the specific context of actual disclosure of personal information using PMDs.

This work embraces three essays on information privacy: 1) Measures of Personal Information Privacy in Social Networks: Information Control and Situation Awareness, 2) Care to Share your Personal Information? and 3) Privacy Breaches: How Resilient Are You? Every transaction made either online or offline, and every social interaction that is transferred or stored electronically in some way, are generally consumed as big data and ultimately drives the analytics from which consumers benefit. However, this raises some concerns about privacy and ethics. For example, should companies that consumers interact with be allowed to sell their personal information? Consumers derive certain benefits such as personalized content when they choose to offer their data to many websites. However, consumers providing personal data to websites subject themselves to possible privacy invasion when third parties purchase their data. In this case, since the consumer willfully gave away their personal information, is it genuinely personal, and should they retain some, if any, control over it? Theories such as privacy calculus and protection motivation theory (PMT) are a couple of prominent examples that focus on the privacy risks and benefits that drive consumer behavior. However, there is still a lack of research on the instantiation of privacy awareness, the stage at which individuals become cognitively aware of assessing any risks versus benefits. The purpose of this paper is to explore this specific research question; what factors drive individuals towards privacy awareness that allows them to assess privacy concerns cognitively?

The privacy paradox is a phenomenon whereby individuals continue to disclose their personal information, contrary to their claim of concerns for the privacy of their personal information. This study investigated the privacy paradox to better understand individuals' decisions to disclose or withhold their personal information. The study argued that individuals’ decisions are based on a cognitive disposition, which involves both rational and emotional mental processes. While the extended privacy calculus model was used as the theoretical basis for the study, the findings of cognitive neuroscience was applied to it to address its limitation in assuming individuals are purely rational decision-makers. Three within-subjects experiments were conducted whereby each subject participated in all three experiments as if it were one. Experiment 1 captured the neural correlates of mental processes involved in privacy-related decisions, while experiment 2 and 3 were factorial-design experiments used for testing the relationship of neural correlates in predicting privacy concerns and personal information disclosure. The findings of this study indicated that at least one neural correlate of every mental process involved in privacy-related decisions significantly influenced personal information disclosure, except for uncertainty. However, there were no significant relationships between mental processes and privacy concerns, except Brodmann’s Area 13, a neural correlate of distrust. This relationship, however, had a positive relationship with privacy concerns, opposite to what was hypothesized. Furthermore, interaction effects indicated that individuals put more emphasis on negative perceptions in privacy-related situations. This study contributed to the information privacy field by supporting the argument that individuals’ privacy-related decisions are both rational and emotional. Specifically, the privacy paradox cannot be explained through solely rational cost-benefit analysis or through an examination of individuals’ emotions alone.

Privacy has been discussed throughout the ages as the world has developed and changed however privacy concerns have been reignited by the development of technology. One of these technologies, Location Based Services (LBS), together with how organisations are using these technologies is pushing the consumers’ privacy boundaries. In order for this technology to become widely adopted these privacy concerns need to be understood and addressed. It is therefore the purpose of this research to examine whether consumers’ privacy concern can be negated through consumers receiving a benefit which caused them to forego this concern.The research used scenarios to evaluate consumers’ comfort levels for four different intrusion levels and five different discounts offered. Due to the nature of the scenarios a repeated measures ANOVA design was used in order to allow for the analysis of each of the scenarios, intrusion levels and discount offered for each respondent.It was found that although privacy concerns can and were influenced by the offers made to the respondents, consumers have not yet gained a complete sense of comfort with the privacy boundaries that are being challenged. / Dissertation (MBA)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) / unrestricted

Individanpassad marknadsföring blir ett allt mer kraftfullt verktyg för företag. Den fortsatta framväxten av digitala medier leder till en ökad insamling av konsumenters persondata som används för att skräddarsy individuella erbjudanden. Företagens användande av individanpassad marknadsföring ger dock upphov till problematik gällande konsumentens integritet. Marknadsförare måste beakta flertalet faktorer för att undvika en integritetskränkande respons hos konsumenterna och istället frambringa marknadsföring som upplevs gynnande. Genom fokusgruppsintervjuer ämnar denna studie att undersöka diverse faktorer som påverkar hur konsumenter upplever individanpassad marknadsföring. Med teoretisk grund rotad i privacy paradox och privacy calculus, undersöker denna studie faktorerna som påverkar konsumenters inställning ur ett integritetsperspektiv. Resultaten belyser hur en majoritet av intervjudeltagarna anser att individanpassad marknadsföring medför vissa gynnande aspekter, dock i ganska låg utsträckning, samt hur allt för personlig och direkt marknadsföring upplevs integritetskränkande i större grad.

Insamling av personlig information utförs av företag i kommersiella syften och används till att skapa profiler och beteendemönster. Utnyttjandet av användares personliga information har upprepande gånger lett till konflikter där människors oro över sin personliga integritet har belysts. Detta har resulterat i skapandet av förordningar som GDPR, California Consumer Privacy Act och ett flertal nationella lagar som syftar till att stärka och skydda individers personuppgifter. Tidigare statistiska undersökningar har visat att studenter är en population som upplever oro över personlig datainsamling. Därav kommer urvalet för denna studie fokusera på studenter.  Syftet med studien är att skapa en förståelse över när en student känner oro i att lämna ifrån sig personlig information. Tidigare forskning visar på att frågor inom integritetsoro är djupt förknippad med en kontext och betydelsen av att placera situationen i ett sammanhang. Domänområdena e-bank, e-handel och e-hälsa har därför valts ut att undersökas i denna studie på grund av deras känsliga samband till integritetsoro men även dess påtagliga relevans inom IS-området.  Studiens resultat bekräftar att integritetsoro skiljer sig genom kontexter i viss mån men studien pekar även på tydliga samband. En oro över faktorn obehörig tillgång förekommer bland tre domäner, dock skiljer sig situationen åt i varje domän. Människors medvetenhet har visat sig vara oberoende av domän då studenter förstår att personlig information samlas in, men vet inte vad den används till. / Today’s companies use Personal data collection for commercial purposes and use it to create profiles and analyze behavior patterns. This abuse of users' personal information has repeatedly led to conflicts in which people's concerns about their privacy have been enlightened. This has resulted in the creation of several regulations such as the GDPR, the California Consumer Privacy Act and a number of national laws that strengthen and protect individuals' personal data. Previous statistical surveys have shown that students are a population that is concerned about personal data collection. Hence, the selected group for this study will be students.  The purpose of this study is to create an understanding of when a student is concerned about disclosing personal information. Previous research shows that privacy concerns are deeply associated with placing the situation in a context. The domain areas of ebanking, e-commerce and e-health have therefore been selected to be examined in this study due to their sensitive connection to privacy concerns but also its noticeable relevance within the IS-area.  The result of this study confirms that integrity concerns differ through contexts to some extent, however the result also shows that there are certain similarities. A concern about the factor improper access occurs among three domains, however, the situation differs in each domain. People's awareness has been shown to be independent by domain as students, regardless of the discussed domain, understand that personal information is collected, but do not know what it is used for.

Individanpassad marknadsföring drivs till stor del av de fördelar som den tillför till ett företags kundrelationer och marknadsföringsresultat. Idag försöker annonsörer möta kundernas förväntningar på en individuell nivå. Tillsammans med detta har den avancerade utveckling av informationsteknologi öppnat nya möjligheter för att kunna samla in och analysera kunddata till att skapa individanpassad marknadsföring. Faktum är att företag behöver samla in mycket information från kunderna för att tillhandahålla kundanpassade tjänster. Syftet med studien är att undersöka och redogöra om individanpassad marknadsföring är något som värdesätts av konsumenter eller uppfattas som ett hot mot konsumentens integritet. Med stöd av denna studie utreder vi de underliggande faktorerna hos konsumenternas positiva eller negativa förhållningssätt gentemot fenomenet. En kvalitativ studie av tolv individuella intervjuer har genomförts. Resultatet visade sig att individanpassad marknadsföring upplevs vara ett hot mot konsumentens integritet. De underliggande faktorer som skapar en känsla av hot är konsumenternas brist på kunskap, brist på lättläst datainsamlingsmetod, begränsning av kontroll över hur ens genererade data kan användas, tvång till att acceptera olika användarvillkor i utbyte av de tjänster som används. Ytterligare faktorer som skapar en känsla av hot för konsumenterna visade sig vara irritation över annonser, tillit för aktören och placeringen av annonsen. Resultatet tyder även på att individanpassad marknadsföring kan uppskattas av konsumenterna i en situation där det uppstår ett ömsesidigt värdeutbyte. / Personalized advertising is largely driven by the benefits that it brings to a company's customer relationship and marketing results. Today, advertisers try to meet customer expectations individually. In the same way, the development of information technology has opened new opportunities for collecting and analyzing customer data to create personalized advertising. In fact, companies need to gather a big amount of information from customers to provide customized services. The purpose of the study is to investigate whether personalized advertising is being valued by customers or does it perceive as a threat to their privacy. This study also investigates the underlying factors of customers' positive or negative attitudes towards personalized advertising. A qualitative study of 12 individual interviews has been conducted. The results showed that personalized advertising is perceived as a threat to customer privacy. The underlying factors that cause a sense of threat are: customer' lack of knowledge, lack of easy-to-read information about data collection methods by actors, restriction of customers' control about how their data should be used, compulsion to accept the various user terms of use in exchange of service. The result of this study also showed that ad irritation, customers' trust in the company and ad placement also affects how customers experience personalized advertising. The results also show that this type of marketing strategy can be appreciated by customers in a situation where a value exchange occurs.

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Studien behandlar fenomenet personaliserad marknadsföring, som har avancerats i dess tillämpning på senare år och har kommit att bli en hyperanpassad upplevelse för mottagaren. Individens informationsutlämnande är centralt för företagens möjlighet att tillämpa marknadsföringsstrategin och därav har det konstaterats att det finns både fördelar och risker med personaliserad marknadsföring, vilket belyses av personalisering- och integritetsparadoxen. Studiens syfte är att undersöka vilken påverkan identifierade fördelar och risker med informationsutlämnande har på konsumentens upplevda värde av personaliserad marknadsföring samt hur en tidigare positiv respektive negativ varumärkesimage kan påverka det upplevda värdet. En enkätundersökning används som forskningsmetod och vid dataanalys tillämpas stegvis modellering samt multipel linjär regressionsanalys. Resultatet visar att preferensmatchning, söktid och positiv varumärkesimage har en positiv påverkan på upplevt värde medan personlig integritet har en negativ påverkan. Därav accepteras hälften av studiens hypoteser. Slutsatsen är att marknadsföring som är anpassad efter konsumentens intressen och preferenser har störst påverkan på konsumentens upplevda värde av personaliserad marknadsföring samt att en tidigare positiv varumärkesimage har en positiv påverkan på det upplevda värdet.

As society progresses towards a more algorithmic era, the influence of artificial intelligence (AI) is driving a revolution in the digital landscape. At its core, AI applications aim to engage customers by providing carefully tailored and data-driven personalization and customization of products, services, and marketing mix elements. However, the adoption of AI, while promising enhanced personalization, poses challenges due to the increased collection, analysis, and control of consumer data by technology owners. Consequently, concerns over data privacy have emerged as a primary consideration for individuals. This paper delves deeper into the implications of the personalization- privacy paradox, aiming to provide a comprehensive analysis of the challenges and opportunities it presents. The purpose of this thesis is to understand users’ privacy concerns and willingness to disclose their personal information to AI technologies by addressing the limitations of previous research and utilizing qualitative methods to gain a more in-depth understanding of consumer views. To understand users’ privacy concerns and willingness to disclose personal information to AI technologies, a qualitative approach was followed. Combining a deductive and inductive approach to fulfill the purpose of the study, empirical data was collected through 20 semi- structured interviews. The participants were chosen using a purposive sampling technique. Users’ privacy concerns and willingness to disclose personal information to AI technologies differ significantly. It depends not only on the individual, but also on the type of AI technology, the company providing the AI technology, the possibility of obtaining additional benefits, and whether the company is transparent about its data collection and can provide proof of security.