La conservation environnementale et la réduction de la pauvreté dans les pays en développement sont deux objectifs prioritaires. Cependant, la nature de la relation entre ces enjeux demeure l'objet de débats. En effet, alors que certains considèrent ces objectifs comme étant conflictuels, d'autres soutiennent qu'ils ne seront atteints que simultanément. Cette thèse vise à améliorer la compréhension de la relation entre conservation environnementale et bien-être ainsi que des mécanismes qui modèrent cette relation. Plus précisément, les analyses réalisées se concentrent sur l'étude des relations entre la mise en place de zones protégées, le développement de l'écotourisme et le bien-être des ménages au Népal. Dans le premier chapitre, nous explorons les liens existant entre les variables qui seront d'intérêt tout au long de la thèse. Ainsi, nous mesurons la nature et la force de la relation entre (1) zones protégées et bien-être, (2) écotourisme et bien-être et (3) l'interaction entre les zones protégées et l'écotourisme, et le bien-être. Nous utilisons la méthode de la régression PLS, qui est appropriée considérant la connaissance théorique limitée sur la relation entre les variables, ainsi que la corrélation forte entre certaines variables explicatives. Les résultats indiquent que les zones protégées, le développement de l'écotourisme et le bien-être sont positivement liés. Ces résultats justifient la pertinence de préciser davantage la structure des relations entre les variables, ce que nous effectuons dans les chapitres suivants. Dans le deuxième chapitre, nous développons un modèle théorique sur la relation entre conservation environnementale et bien-être. Dans la littérature, les résultats théoriques et empiriques sur cette relation divergent. La plupart des modèles théoriques s'appuient sur l'hypothèse que la terre protégée demeure inutilisée, ce qui ne semble pas être vérifié empiriquement. Ainsi, nous intégrons dans notre modèle théorique un secteur productif qui se développe avec les efforts de conservation. Les résultats indiquent que, lorsque la conservation est combinée au développement d'un secteur alternatif, elle peut générer une hausse du bien-être. Nous validons cette conclusion théorique à l'aide de méthodes économétriques. Les données utilisées dans les chapitres 1 et 2 ne permettent toutefois pas de distinguer les ménages résidant à l'intérieur d'une zone protégée, ainsi que ceux impliqués dans le secteur de l'écotourisme. Des variables mesurées au niveau du district doivent donc être utilisées pour capter l'effet de l'écotourisme et de la conservation. Ainsi, dans le troisième chapitre, nous présentons un rapport méthodologique et statistique de l'enquête sur les ménages, que nous avons réalisée au Népal en 2013. L'objectif de l'enquête est de collecter l'information nécessaire pour mesurer l'impact du développement de l'écotourisme et de la conservation environnementale sur le bien-être à partir de données représentatives et désagrégées au niveau du ménage. Nous détaillons dans ce chapitre la méthodologie d'enquête et présentons les résultats descriptifs obtenus. Enfin, dans le quatrième chapitre, nous utilisons les données collectées pour mesurer l'impact de l'écotourisme et des restrictions environnementales sur le bien-être des ménages. Nous développons un modèle hiérarchique linéaire à deux niveaux, afin de tenir compte de la structure hiérarchique et clustérisée de la base de données. Nous montrons que de s'impliquer dans une occupation liée à l'écotourisme, en tant que travailleur autonome, augmente les dépenses de consommation du ménage. De plus, cette implication produit une externalité positive sur le bien-être des ménages situés à proximité. Ce chapitre est complémentaire aux précédents puisque les résultats obtenus permettent de conclure sur les liens de causalité entre les variables, et ainsi de formuler des recommandations de politiques environnementales et de développement. / Environmental conservation and poverty reduction are two priorities in developing countries. However, there is still no agreement in the literature on the nature of the relationship between these two major issues. While some consider that these objectives are conflicting, others believe they can only be achieved simultaneously. This thesis aims at improving the understanding of the relationship between environmental conservation and welfare, as well as of mechanisms that moderate this relationship. More precisely, our analysis concentrate on the study of the relationships between the establishment of protected areas, ecotourism development and local welfare in Nepal.In the first chapter, we explore the links between the variables that will be of interest throughout the thesis. Therefore, we measure the nature and the strength of the relationship between (1) protected areas and welfare, (2) ecotourism and welfare and (3) the interaction between protected areas and ecotourism, and welfare. We use the PLS regression method, which is appropriate considering the limited theoretical knowledge on the relationship between the variables, as well as the strong correlation between certain variables. Results show that protected areas, ecotourism development and welfare are positively linked. This justify the relevance of elaborating more on the structure of the relationships between the variables, which is achieved in the next chapters. In the second chapter, we develop a theoretical model on the relationship between environmental conservation and welfare. In the literature, theoretical and empirical results on this relationship diverge. Most of theoretical models assume that protected land remain unused, which does not appear to be empirically verified. Therefore, we include in our theoretical model a productive sector that develops with conservation efforts. Results indicate that, when conservation is combined with an alternative sector development, it can generate a welfare increase. We validate this theoretical conclusion using econometric methods. Data used in the first and second chapters do not allow to distinguish household living inside a protected area, and those involved in the ecotourism sector. Variables measured at the district level must thus be used to capture the effect of ecotourism and conservation. In the third chapter, we present a methodological and statistical report of the household survey that we conducted is 2013, in Nepal. The objective of the survey is to collect the information required to measure the effect of ecotourism development and environmental conservation on welfare, using representative and household-level data. In this chapter, we detail the survey methodology and present the descriptive results obtained.Finally, in chapter 4, we use the data collected to measure the effect of ecotourism and environmental restrictions on household welfare. We develop a two-level hierarchical linear model, that is appropriate considering the database hierarchical and clustered structure. We show that getting involved in an occupation directly linked to ecotourism, as a self-employed, increases household consumption expenses. Besides, this implication in the sector generates positive externalities on the welfare of households located nearby. This chapter is complementary to the others since results allow to conclude on causality links between the variables, and therefore to formulate environmental and development policy recommendations.

Esta dissertação de mestrado consiste em um estudo epistemológico da questão ambiental, baseado na análise das identidades territoriais das populações habitantes de Unidades de Conservação (UC’s). Tais populações geralmente têm um modo de vida peculiar e muito vinculado com o espaço onde vivem. Além disso, elas também têm outras percepções sobre a questão ambiental e os conceitos relacionados. Estas percepções, entretanto, geralmente são subjugadas em nome da tecnocracia presente nos órgãos e instituições que trabalham com a temática ambiental. Neste contexto, o trabalho realiza um levantamento dos impasses e conflitos existentes a partir das considerações acima expostas, e os relaciona com as visões, sobre a questão ambiental, dos diferentes grupos sociais envolvidos (poder público, setor privado, ONG´s, movimentos sociais e populações tradicionais). A esta análise acrescenta uma (re)leitura dos métodos científicos à luz da epistemologia (positivismo, neopositivismo, materialismo histórico e dialético, fenomenologia, pós-modernismo e anarquismo), e o modo como cada um deles entende os conceitos de natureza e ambiente. Após, relaciona estas concepções metodológicas com as visões dos diferentes grupos, identificando a posição mais ligada a cada um deles. Com isso, as UC’s são questionadas a partir de sua base epistêmica, que reflete a matriz de pensamento ocidental moderno, e que por sua vez tende a dicotomizar homem e natureza. Ao final, são propostas outras leituras, baseadas em outras matrizes epistemológicas, para superar os impasses relativos a este viés da questão ambiental. / This dissertation consists in an epistemological study of the environmental question, based on analysis of territorial identities of the populations inhabitants in protected areas. Such populations usually have a peculiar lifestyle, very linked with the geographical space where they live. Moreover, they have other perceptions about the environmental question and their related concepts. However, this perceptions are generally subjugated by the “technocracy” present in the agencies and institutions that works with the environmental thematic. In this context, the work carries through a survey, the impasses and conflicts produced by the considerations above displayed, and it relates them with the environmental question views of the different involved social groups (government power, private sector, nongovernment organizations, social and activities movements and indigenous people). To this analysis, it adds a (re)reading of the scientific methods, viewed from epistemological “eyes” (positivism, neopositivism, historical and dialectical materialism, phenomenology, postmodernism and anarchism), and the way as each one of them understands the concepts of nature and environment. After, it relates these methodological conceptions with the views of the different groups, identifying the position more connected with each of them. From this, the protected areas are questioned from your epistemic basis, that reflects the modern occidental thought matrix, and that tends to dichotomize man and nature. To the end, other readings, based on other epistemological matrices, are proposals, to surpass the impasses relatives to this side of the environmental question.

Magister Scientiae - MSc (Biodiversity and Conservation Biology) / At a meeting of worl leaders at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, it was recognized that because of the tremendous increase in the size of the global populations (which now is estimated to exceed six billion), there were concerns that global biodiversity was at risk if insufficient land were not put aside for conservation within formal Protected Areas. The primary aim of this study was to compare investment in Protected Areas in relation to socio-economic conditions at global and regional levels. / South Africa

Landscape change and biodiversity decline is a global problem and has sparked world-wide initiatives promoting biological conservation techniques such as reintroductions, protected area networks, and both preservation and restoration of landscape connectivity. Despite the increasing abundance of such working landscapes (i.e. “human-modified” landscapes), we know relatively little about their ecological mechanics; these landscapes can be vast, encompassing areas too large to obtain high resolution ecological data to test ecological process. To investigate the ecological mechanics of working landscapes, I use a small, tractable, landscape mesocosm situated in east-central Alberta, Canada, The Cooking Lake Moraine (a.k.a. the Beaver Hills Biosphere). The chapters within this dissertation quantify biodiversity across a hierarchy of measurements (from genes to communities) and investigate consistencies in ecological processes generating patterns in these biodiversity measurements across spatial scales. As a result, I investigate both a depth, and breadth, of spatial ecological processes underlying the efficacy of biodiversity conservation techniques in heterogeneous working landscapes. In Chapter I, I explore between-landscape functional connectivity by investigating the genetic contribution of reintroduced individuals to an ostensibly successfully reintroduced population within the mesocosm. I find that contemporary animals are the result of recolonization from adjacent sources rather than putative reintroduction founding individuals, indicating greater mesocosm functional connectivity to adjacent landscapes than previously thought. In Chapter II, I probe within-landscape functional connectivity by quantifying the contribution of protected areas, natural, and anthropogenic landscape features to animal movement across the mesocosm. I find that natural features had the largest effect on animal movements, despite the presence of protected areas. Chapter III investigates protected area network efficacy on biodiversity conservation by quantifying the contribution of protected areas, natural, and anthropogenic landscape features to mammalian functional diversity across multiple spatial scales within the mesocosm. I find that protected areas rarely predict functional diversity across spatial scales; instead natural features positively predict functional diversity at small spatial scales while anthropogenic features are negatively associated with biodiversity at large spatial scales. Finally, Chapter IV ties the previous three chapters together by testing implicit assumptions of the species occurrence data collected in each. I compare GPS collar data (Chapter II) to species occurrence data collected on wildlife cameras (Chapter III) to demonstrate that the magnitude of animal movements better predict species occurrence than the commonly assumed proximity of animal space use. Across chapters, two central themes emerge from this dissertation. First, the importance of natural features at small spatial scales, and anthropogenic features at large spatial scales, within the landscape matrix is predominant in predicting multiple measures of biodiversity. And second, we cannot assume predictable efficacy of conservation strategies or even the ecological process inferred from the data collected to test these strategies. / Graduate

This thesis research analyzed the perceptions of local community residents in Puerto Morelos, Mx., and its affect on the National Marine Park. Social and economic factors affecting the level of support for the marine park were evaluated. Formal semi-structured written surveys were conducted with stakeholders in two major sub-regions affected by the protected zone. The survey allowed for comparison of stakeholders providing qualitative and quantitative information regarding attitudes, regulation awareness, and formation of the marine protected area. The results demonstrated a difference in knowledge level based on location in the community. Demographic indicators including education, nationality and community residency time are significant influences on the community perception of marine protection. There was a significant relationship between economic growth provided by the protected area and the level of support for protection resources. Further understanding of the relationship between social indicators and resource management is needed for conservation of important coastal resources.

Recently adopted global marine protection targets aim to protect 10-30% of marine habitats within the next 3 to 5 years. However, these targets were adopted without prior assessment of their attainability. Moreover, our ability to monitor progress towards such targets has been constrained by a lack of robust data on marine protected areas (MPAs). In this thesis I present the results of the first explicitly marine-focused, global assessment of MPAs in relation to three global marine protection targets. Approximately 2.35 million km2, equivalent to 0.65% of the world’s oceans, are currently protected, and only 12% of that is ‘no-take’. Over the last two decades, the marine area protected globally has grown at ~5% per year. At this rate, even the most modest target is unlikely to be met for at least several decades. The utility of large-scale conservation targets has been repeatedly questioned, although mainly on ecological grounds. However, if, as is suggested here, their primary role is to motivate behavioural change, then a more serious problem is that they seem to be failing in this regard, too. I explore possible reasons for this and suggest two main problems: firstly, an as yet unmet need to develop a hierarchical system of targets that reflects the multi-scale and pluralistic nature of ecological and political systems; and secondly, feedback mechanisms between political will, perceived attainability, and target formulation which may impede implementation of the targets. Since the adoption of the global targets, no implementation strategy has been developed, which may also impede target attainment. In order to fill this gap, I applied a rarity-complementarity heuristic place prioritisation algorithm (PPA) to a dataset consisting of 1038 global species distributions with 0.5° latitude/longitude resolution, under ten scenarios devised to reflect the global targets. This is the first time that species distribution ranges of marine species have been used in a globally synthetic way, and is by far the largest application of a PPA to date. Global priority areas for protection are identified for each scenario, which may be used to identify where regional-scale protected areas network design efforts might be focused. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

This research is an ethnographic case study of the emerging ecotourism economies in the agricultural village of San Gerardo de Rivas, Pérez Zeledón, Costa Rica. Due to the village’s location as the main entry point to climb the country’s tallest mountain within Chirripó National Park, the majority of households in San Gerardo now derive some income from tourism. I conducted twenty household surveys, followed by twenty-one semi-structured interviews with male and female heads of households and representatives of local organizations and tourism businesses. Drawing on local perspectives, I found that ecotourism was a complementary income source to agriculture and that men and women were engaging differently in ecotourism employment. Local organizations were involved in the participatory management of ecotourism activities within Chirripó National Park. Ecotourism has affected environmental practices and local people are strategically negotiating the direction of tourism development, including through using environmental discourses, to optimize the benefits to their community.

Bush meat markets and habitat encroachment are on the increase, and the current demand for crocodilian bush meat is not sustainable. Of the three species of African crocodiles, the dwarf crocodile, Osteolaemus tetraspis, is by far the most heavily hunted. This preference is influenced by its small size and relatively non-aggressive nature, which facilitates easy capture, and further it stays alive while being transported to markets. The location of bush meat markets is determined by human population density and infrastructure. In general, a lack of infrastructure, whether it be a river or a paved road, implies only subsistence hunting. Many officially protected areas, where animals should be safe from depredation by humans, are not actually safe havens for O. tetraspis. There is often a lack of protection inside and around national parks in Central Africa, and when conducting research into this specific species, it was found that often more animals can be found per day in a bush meat market, compared with the same amount of effort in a national park. Crocodile mortality caused by people, both deliberate and inadvertent, must be controlled. However, conservation should be within the realms of politics, economics, ecology and social problems at a local level. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Animal and Wildlife Sciences / unrestricted

In an understocked game management area surrounding privately managed Kasanka national park in the Central Province of Zambia, local attitudes towards conservation and park-people relations were examined in the context of a community based natural resource management program. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 260 households and a multiple linear regression was used to analyze the data. Significant socioeconomic factors and attributes of households relevant in explaining positive conservation attitudes were education, employment with the park, and experience with outreach efforts. Outreach though is constrained by the limits on revenue generation of a small park, low communication of program purpose, and poor relations between park management and the chief. Support for conservation is undermined by antagonism between locals and wildlife scouts and crop damage by elephants. However, attitudes should improve with a strategy to address human-elephant conflict and enhance communication of the programs accomplishments and objectives.

When elephants leave primary protected areas (PPAs), such as national parks and game reserves, they may come into conflict with people residing on the adjoining land. In this study, I attempted to determine why African savannah elephants leave the PPAs in which they were collared. To accomplish this, I used telemetry locations of collared elephants in PPAs throughout southern Africa and investigated whether a range of intrinsic and extrinsic variables could explain why elephants crossed the boundaries of the PPAs. Adjoining many of the PPAs were secondary protected areas (SPAs), which consisted of community conservancies, and collectively with the PPAs formed clusters of protected areas. Most (45 of 49) elephants roamed beyond the PPAs but they remained within the clusters of protected areas. The elephants utilised both the PPAs and the SPAs and appeared to not feel threatened when using the SPAs. The reasons for elephants leaving PPAs varied both seasonally and between the sexes. The females roamed beyond the PPAs more during the wet season than the dry season, whereas, for males there was no seasonal difference. During the wet season, female and male habitat selection was similar within and beyond the PPAs. During the dry season, more females and males beyond the PPAs selected for areas close to people, which could be indicative of water. The proportion of male and female home ranges beyond PPAs did not increase with increasing density of elephant populations within the PPAs, nor did the proportion of female home ranges beyond PPAs increase with increasing population growth rate of elephant populations within the PPAs. Therefore, high numbers of elephants within the PPAs did not drive elephants beyond the boundaries. Contrastingly, the proportion of male home ranges beyond the PPAs did increase with increasing population growth rate. However, the results were inconclusive due to small sample size. This study confirms that elephants are utilising the SPAs as well as the PPAs. Therefore, the importance of including the SPAs in conservation actions for elephants cannot be over-emphasized. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted