Research is vital in Psychology, as well as the social sciences, as it is a tool for creating knowledge through the interpretation and manipulation of empirical data, and thus furthering understanding in a field (Barak, 1998; Bridges, Gillmore, Pershing, & Bates, 1998; VanderStoep & Shaughnessy, 1997). Self-efficacy, metacognitive awareness, and working memory are essential to explore in relation to academic performance in research methods courses such as RDA IIA, as these skills are needed in the different components of these types of courses and are likely to play a role in predicting academic performance (Alloway, 2006; Bandura, 1993; Payne & Israel, 2010; Zulkiply, Kabit, & Ghani, 2008). Self-efficacy, metacognitive awareness, and working memory are also all potentially susceptible to intervention, and therefore exploring and establishing relationships between these variables could improve ways to teach and help students achieve academically. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the relationships between academic self-efficacy, metacognitive awareness, working memory, and academic performance on the RDA IIA module overall and for different components. The sample consisted of 95 students who had completed RDA IIA at the University of the Witwatersrand. The instrumentation used consisted of a brief demographic questionnaire, an adapted Academic Self-Efficacy Scale, the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory, and three working memory tasks assessing verbal, spatial, and numerical working memory. Academic self-efficacy related to and predicted performance in the research component of the course, and also predicted final RDA IIA mark. Metacognitive awareness did not relate to or predict any aspect of RDA IIA performance, except for a significant positive correlation between declarative knowledge and research mark. The working memory total and mental counters task related to and predicted all aspects of RDA IIA performance; the verbal task related to research mark but had no predictive role in RDA IIA performance; and lastly, the spatial task did not relate to or predict any aspects of RDA IIA performance. The results of the study contribute to a better understanding of the factors relating to and predicting RDA IIA performance; and these findings may lead to the development of more effective intervention programmes to assist students in improving their research methodology marks.

Action has many influences on how and what we perceive. One robust example of the relationship between action and subsequent perception, which has recently received great attention in the cognitive sciences, is the “intentional binding” effect: When people estimate the timing of their actions and those actions’ effects, they judge the actions and effects as having occurred closer together in time than two events that do not involve voluntary action (Haggard, Clark, & Kalogeras, 2002). This dissertation examines the possible mechanisms and consequences of the intentional binding effect. First, in Chapter 1, I discuss previous literature on the relationships between experiences of time, action, and causality. Impressions of time and causality are psychologically related: The perceived timing of events impacts, and is impacted by, perceived causality. Similarly, one’s experience of causing and controlling events with voluntary action, sometimes called the sense of agency, shapes and is shaped by how those events’ timing is perceived—as shown by the intentional binding effect. In Chapter 2 I present a series of experiments investigating a hypothesized mechanism underlying the intentional binding effect: Actions may lead to a slowing of subjective time, which would explain the intentional binding effect by postulating a shorter experienced duration between action and effect. This hypothesis predicts that, following action, durations separating any two stimuli would appear subjectively shorter. We tested this hypothesis in the context of visual motion illusions: Two visual stimuli are presented in short succession and if the duration between the stimuli (inter-stimulus interval; ISI) is short, participants tend to perceive motion such that the first stimulus appears to move to the position of the second stimulus. If actions shorten subjective durations, even in visual perception, people should observe motion at longer ISIs when the stimuli follow voluntary action because the two stimuli would be separated by less subjective time. Three experiments confirmed this prediction. An additional experiment showed that verbal estimates of the ISI are also shorter following action. A control experiment suggested that a shift in the ability to prepare for the stimuli, afforded by the participant initiating the stimuli, is an unlikely alternative explanation of the observed results. In Chapter 3 I further investigate whether temporal contiguity of actions and their effects, which is known to impact intentional binding, affects perceptions of visual motion illusions. Two experiments showed that temporal contiguity modulates perceptions of illusory motion in a manner similar to contiguity’s effect on intentional binding. Together, these results show that actions impact perception of visual motion illusions and suggest that general slowing of subjective time is a plausible mechanism underlying the intentional binding effect.

Research suggests that social prescribing schemes can offer health and psychological wellbeing benefits to older people across a range of interventions. The present study sought to understand how museum programmes, designed to support socially isolated older adults, created opportunities to enhance wellbeing and change experiences of social isolation. A grounded theory approach was used to analyse initial interviews, 3-month follow-up interviews, and participant diaries, from 12 participants who took part in 10-week programmes across six different museums in London and Kent. A theoretical model was developed showing elements of museum programmes, such as the role of the facilitator, activities and physical space, that enabled both individual journeys and relational processes. In addition, individual journeys and relational processes influenced each other, enhancing the experience. These components operated within an interacting social context that was enriched by the museum programme. The theoretical model links with psychological concepts of attachment theory and self-esteem to explain how cultural group programmes could provide opportunities for change in older people. Limitations of the research, implications for clinical practice and recommendations for future research are discussed.

What motivates one to write a thesis? This study assessed whether presenting one’s master’s thesis proposal at a thesis colloquium increased the probability of Industrial/Organizational I/O) Psychology graduate students completing their thesis on time (i.e., finishing their thesis as they finished their graduate coursework). This study also examined the relationship between presenting one’s thesis proposal at a thesis colloquium and different forms of motivated regulation and three basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness). Participants included 94 master’s level I/O Psychology alumni from four universities. As expected, students who presented at a thesis colloquium had a higher rate of on-time thesis completion. Students who presented at a thesis colloquium also reported a higher level of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation toward their thesis, and a lower level of amotivation toward their thesis compared to students who did not present at a colloquium. Reported level of relatedness toward individuals who helped work on the thesis was higher for those who presented at a thesis colloquium than for those who did not present. However, there were no differences between those who did or did not present at a colloquium in terms of reported competence and autonomy.

Section A is a literature review, exploring the psychological theories behind gardening-based mental health interventions and providing an overview of the current evidence to support their use. It builds on the last comprehensive review conducted in 2003, finding that the evidence-base has developed considerably over the past decade but that there is still a need for higher quality research in this field. Section B considers the value of gardening in promoting wellbeing in a non-clinical sample. A qualitative study is presented in which six suburban allotment-holders completed in-depth interviews about their allotment gardening and its perceived impact on their wellbeing. Transcripts were subjected to Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Seven main themes emerged from the data: fundamental importance of food, protection and safety, feeling connected, esteem, pleasure of being in nature, development and values. Parallels were drawn between these themes and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. While each participant talked to some extent about all of the themes, a different theme was dominant for each individual, suggesting that allotments are flexible environments that may enable people to meet their individual needs, in order to enhance wellbeing. Implications for clinical and community psychology are discussed.

It has been suggested that professionals working with trauma survivors can experience positive change and growth, but there is a dearth of research evidence. Therefore this study aimed to develop a preliminary model, grounded in data, encapsulating the processes and outcomes involved in positive change in a sample of these professionals. Twelve professionals (clinical psychologists, psychotherapists, a psychiatrist, and a solicitor) with experience of working with trauma survivors were interviewed about their experiences of positive change in relation to their work. Semi-structured interviews were audio taped, transcribed and analysed using a grounded theory approach. A model was developed for an episode of positive change, based upon four main processes that seemed to follow on from each other: key experiences in the work, emotional disruption, coping, and enduring positive changes. Conditions that influenced the intensity of emotional disruption experienced by professionals were also identified. The model of enduring positive change provides a fuller account of the growth processes and outcomes than previous literature to date. The main implication is that experiencing an emotional disruption as a consequence of the work can be a normal reaction to the work, and it may eventually lead to enduring positive change. This has further implications for training, supervision and continued professional development.

The potential for green interventions to promote mental wellbeing and reduce mental distress is increasingly being recognised (Mind, 2007). Preliminary evidence suggests that allotment gardening activities may have a significant effect on mental wellbeing, but a paucity of research, particularly in non-clinical populations, has been highlighted (Partridge, 2010). A cross-sectional online survey of 171 allotment gardeners was conducted. Measures of subjective wellbeing (quality of life), eudaimonic wellbeing, connectedness to nature and preference for solitude were administered. Qualitative data were also collected through open-ended questions. Allotment gardeners’ scores on measures of environmental quality of life and eudaimonic wellbeing were significantly higher than those reported in the literature, but social quality of life was lower in allotment gardeners. Regression analysis showed that time spent on the allotment during summer predicted eudaimonic wellbeing. This relationship was fully mediated by feelings of connectedness to nature. A relationship was observed between spending time on the allotment and preference for solitude. Four main themes emerged from the qualitative data: allotments provided a space of one’s own, meaningful activity, increased feelings of connectedness, and improved physical and mental health. The results suggest that allotment gardening is associated with increased eudaimonic wellbeing, but not subjective wellbeing (also referred to as hedonic wellbeing). Furthermore, a mechanism through which allotment gardening enhances wellbeing is suggested: increased connectedness to nature. Limitations of the current study and clinical and research implications are discussed.

Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) is England’s most common blood disorder whereby sickled shaped red blood cells block small blood vessels causing both acute and chronic pain. Currently there is poor understanding about the experience of SCD pain. Furthermore, there is a recognised difficult relationship between SCD patients and health care professionals (HCP) which has been found to prevent patients seeking medical assistance. Seven adults with SCD participated in semi-structured interviews regarding their experience of pain and receiving medical treatment. Interviews were transcribed and analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (Smith, Flowers & Larkin, 2009). The analysis revealed three overarching themes: experiencing unimaginable pain, the dilemma of treatment and finding a life with pain. Findings suggest describing SCD pain is extremely difficult, participants favoured using analogies to attempt to communicate the constant, agonising, limitless, inescapable pain. Participants described that normal rules do not apply in that pain medication does not always relieve pain. These factors have caused misunderstanding with staff thinking SCD patients are drug seeking. Participants wanted HCPs to listen to their own expertise when considering treatment options. Study limitations, implications for clinical practice and current models of health and illness are considered, as well as possible for future research.

Reliability issues are always salient as behavioral researchers observe human behavior and classify individuals from criterion-referenced test scores. This has created a need for studies to assess agreement between observers, recording the occurrance of various behaviors, to establish the reliability of their classifications. In addition, there is a need for measuring the consistency of dichotomous and polytomous classifications established from criterion-referenced test scores. The development of several log linear univariate models for measuring agreement has partially met the demand for a probability-based measure of agreement with a directly interpretable meaning. However, multi-variate repeated measures agreement produres are necessary because of the development of complex intrasubject and intersubject research designs. The present investigation developed applications of the log linear, latent class, and weighted least squares procedures for the analysis of multivariate repeated measures designs. These computations tested the model-data fit and calculated the multivariate measure of the magnitude of agreement under the quasi-equiprobability and quasi-independence models. Applications of these computations were illustrated with real and hypothetical observational data. It was demonstrated that employing log linear, latent class, and weighted least squares computations resulted in identical multi-variate model-data fits with equivalent chi-square values. Moreover, the application of these three methodologies also produced identical measures of the degree of agreement at each point in time and for the multivariate average. The multivariate methods that were developed also included procedures for measuring the probability of agreement for a single response classification or subset of classifications from a larger set. In addition, procedures were developed to analyze occurrences of systematic observed disagreement within the multivariate tables. The consistency of dichotomous and polytomous classifications over repeated assessments of the identical examinees was also suggested as a means of conceptualizing criterion-referenced reliability. By applying the univariate and multivariate models described, the reliability of these classifications across repeated testings could be calculated. The procedures utilizing the log linear, latent structure, and weighted least squares concepts for the purpose of measuring agreement have the advantages of (1)yielding a coefficient of agreement that varies between zero and one and measures agreement in terms of the probability that the observers' judgements will agree, as estimated under a quasi-equiprobability or quasi-independence model, (2)correcting for the proportion of "chance" agreement, and (3) providing a directly interpretable coefficient of "no agreement." Thus, these multivariate procedures may be regarded as a more refined psychometric technology for measuring inter-observer agreement and criterion-referenced test reliability.

Teachers play a pivotal role in the education system and in society at large. With this in mind, the government should address their particular needs. In the context of positive psychology, issues of happiness and subjective well-being could lead to increased educational outcomes and general health. The purpose of the research was to determine the relationship between orientations to happiness and subjective well-being and to determine whether the orientations to happiness hold predictive value for satisfaction with life. A cross-sectional survey design was used for the study. A sample of 175 (N=175) teachers in Swaziland was used. Three demographic questionnaires were used: the Orientations to Happiness Questionnaire (OHS) (Peterson, Park, & Seligman, 2005), Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) to measure subjective well-being, General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28) (Goldman & Hillier, 1979) as well as a biographical questionnaire. Results indicated that pleasure and engagement (subscales of orientations to happiness) were positively correlated with satisfaction with life. General health subscales, somatic symptoms, anxiety/insomnia, and severe depression had a negative relationship with satisfaction with life. Of the three orientations, pleasure was found to have predictive value for life satisfaction. Implications of the findings on the relationships between orientations and subjective well-being for helping teachers to promote a more satisfying life are discussed. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.