O uso das quasi-particulas de Majorana que emergem nas bordas de um supercondutor topológico é uma plataforma promisora para computação quântica. Novas propostas usam quantum dots (QDs) para detectar sinais de Majorana. Este método tem duas vantagens: 1) Os QDs são os melhores dispositivos para estudar a co-existência de Kondo e Majorana, a qual têm sido reportada recentemente em experimentos. 2) O controle experimental preciso sobre os quantum dots que temos hoje em dia oferece a oportunidade única para manipular quasi-partículas de Majoranas dentro de sistemas com vários dots. Esta ideia abriu novos caminhos para o desenho de arquiteturas quânticas, nos aproximando do objetivo de implementar um computador quântico topológico. O caso mais simples em que se é possível manipular tais quasi-partículas é num quantum dot duplo (DQD). Este modelo oferece várias possibilidades para mover os Majoranas, incluindo múltiplas configurações geométricas dos dots como acoplamentos simétricos, lineares e em junções T. Neste trabalho vamos apresentar uma análise teórica das transiç?s dos sinais de Majorana dentro do DQD em sistemas interagentes e não interagentes. Vamos ver que é possível controlar a localização dos modos zero de Majorana mediante o incremento nas voltagens de gate dos QDs. Também vamos explorar como esses sinais interagem com o efeito Kondo que emerge em superposição com o modo zero de Majorana. Principalmente, vamos a usar dois métodos neste projecto: 1) Usamos as equações de movimento no formalismo de funções de Green para obter expressões exatas para a densidade de estados em sistemas não interagentes. Vamos apresentar o método the eliminação de Gauss-Jordan com grafos, o qual permite resolver rapidamente o sistema linear emergente nas equações de movimento. 2) Em sistemas Coulomb interagentes usamos NRG, no qual poderemos observar a interação entre o Majorana e o efeito Kondo. Vamos testar ambos os métodos nos modelos de um double quantum dot e um QD acoplado com uma cadeia de Majorana, com o qual vamos reproduzir os resultados presentes na literatura. Finalmente, incluímos a maior contribuição deste trabalho, o estudo de um DQD acoplado a uma cadeia de Majorana. / Majorana zero modes (MZMs) emerging at the edges of topological superconducting wires are a promising platform for fault-tolerant quantum computation. Novel proposals use quantum dots (QDs) coupled to the end of these wires to detect Majorana signatures. This detection method provides the following advantages: 1) This device allows to study the prospective coexistence of Kondo-Majorana signatures, which have been recently reported in experiments. 2) Today\'s precise experimental control over QDs offers the unique possibility of manipulating MZMs inside multi-dot systems. This innovative idea has enlightened the design of scalable quantum architectures, bringing us closer to the implementation of a topological quantum computer. The simplest case where Majorana manipulation is possible is in a double quantum dot (DQD). This system offers several possibilities for manipulation of MZMs, including different geometric configurations of the dots, from symmetric and linear couplings to T-dot junctions. In this project, we perform a theoretical study of the transitions of the Majorana signature in these geometries in non-interacting and interacting regimes. By tuning the dot\'s gate voltages, we will show that it is possible to control the localization of the MZM inside both dots. We will also explore the interplay of these signatures with the Kondo effect, which emerges in non-interacting dots in superposition with the MZM. We adopt two methods in this project: 1) The Green equations of motion (EOM) allow us to obtain exact expressions for the density of states in coulomb-non-interacting systems. We present the Graph -Gauss-Jordan elimination process as a simple-graphical method to solve the emergent linear systems in the EOM. 2) We use Wilson\'s numerical renormalization group (NRG) in interacting systems, to study the combined Kondo-Majorana physics. We will test these methods, first in a double quantum dot (DQD) (chapter 3) and then in a QD-Majorana model (chapter 4), where we confirm the results of previous papers [1-3]. Finally, we include the main contribution of this thesis, the study of a DQD coupled to a Majorana chain (chapter 5).

Contrôler la lumière avec de la lumière au niveau du photon unique est un objectif fondamental dans le domaine de l'information quantique, ou de l'ordinateur optique à très basse puissance. Un émetteur quantique constitué d'un unique système à deux niveaux est un milieu très non-linéaire, pour lequel l'interaction avec un photon peut modifier la transmission d'un photon suivant. Dans ce scenario, le défi pour obtenir une telle non-linéarité géante est d'optimiser l'interaction lumière matière. Une solution à ce défi est d’insérer l'émetteur quantique dans une structure photonique. Ce système est appelé « atome uni-dimensionnel » : la collection de la lumière, tout comme la probabilité d'absorber un photon se propageant dans la structure est maximum.Dans ce travail, nous avons utilisé ce type de système pour réaliser une non-linéarité géante à deux modes, dans laquelle la réflexion d'un des modes est contrôlée par un autre mode au niveau du photon unique. Le système est constitué d'une boite quantique semi-conductrice InAs/GaAs, qui peut être considéré comme un atome artificiel, insérée dans un fil photonique en GaAs opérant comme un guide d'onde. Le fil photonique définit un mode spatial unique autour de l'émetteur et offre une interaction lumière-matière avec une efficacité quasi-idéale. De plus, ce fil photonique présente cette propriété sur une large bande spectrale. Grâce à ces deux propriétés, nous avons démontré expérimentalement une non-linéarité géante à un mode et à deux modes à un niveau de quelques dizaines de photons par durée de vie de l'émetteur. Cela permet de réaliser un interrupteur tout optique intégré, à très faible seuil. / Controlling light by light at the single photon level is a fundamental quest in the field of quantum computing, quantum information science and classical ultra-low power optical computing. A quantum light emitter made of a single two-level system is a highly non-linear medium, where the interaction of one photon with the medium can modify the transmission of another incoming photon. In this scenario, the most challenging issue to obtain a giant optical non-linearity is to optimize photon-emitter interaction. This issue can be overcome by inserting the quantum emitter inside a photonic structure. This system is known as “one-dimensional atom”: the light collection efficiency as well as the probability for an emitter to absorb a photon fed into the structure is maximum. In this study, we aim at using such kind of system to experimentally realize a two-mode giant non-linearity, in which the reflection of one light mode is controlled by another light mode at the single-photon level. The system consists of a semiconductor InAs/GaAs quantum dot, which can be considered as an artificial atom, embedded inside a GaAs photonic wire, which is an optical waveguide. The photonic wire defines a single spatial mode around the emitter and offers a close to unity light-emitter interaction efficiency. In addition, the photonic wire also possesses a spectrally broadband operation range. Thanks to these two excellent features of the system, we experimentally demonstrate in this thesis a single-mode and a two-mode giant non-linearity obtained at the level of just a few tens of photons per emitter lifetime. This realizes an integrated ultra-low power all-optical switch.

Cette thèse porte sur l'interaction lumière-matière au sein de nanostructures placées dans des cavités optiques à base de semi-conducteurs nitrures. A l'aide d'expériences de micro-photoluminescence dans l'ultra-violet, nous étudions les propriétés optiques de boîtes quantiques GaN/AlN dans des microcavités planaires et celles de puits quantiques GaN/AlN insérés dans des microdisques AlN.Afin d'améliorer la collection du faible signal de photoluminescence de boîtes quantiques uniques, nous utilisons des microcavités planaires pour modifier le diagramme d'émission d'une boîte quantique. Le dessin des microcavités est optimisé grâce à des simulations numériques basées sur la méthode des matrices de transfert en présence d'un émetteur. Nous montrons que, pour une microcavité nitrure à base de miroirs de Bragg AlN/AlGaN, la collection des photons émis par une boîte quantique peut être théoriquement améliorée d'un ordre de grandeur, ce qui est confirmé par nos mesures sur boîtes quantiques uniques, ouvrant ainsi la voie à des études avancées de corrélations de photons dans l'UV.La seconde partie des travaux est dédiée à la réalisation d'un micro-laser opérant dans l'UV profond et à température ambiante. En utilisant des puits quantiques GaN/AlN de 2,8 mono-couches, crûs sur substrat silicium et insérés dans des microdisques AlN, nous observons une émission laser à 275 nm sous pompage optique impulsionnel. Cette démonstration montre le fort potentiel des semi-conducteurs nitrures pour la nano-photonique UV sur silicium. / This thesis addresses the light-matter interaction in nitride nanostructures embedded in optical microcavities. By using micro-photoluminescence experiments, we study the optical properties of GaN/AlN quantum dots embedded in planar microcavities and those of GaN/AlN quantum wells in AlN microdisks.By placing quantum dots in planar microcavities, we are able to modify the emission diagram and increase the collection efficiency. The design of the microcavities is optimized by using numerical simulations based on transfer matrix method with an internal emitter. For an AlN microcavity with AlN/AlGaN Bragg mirrors, we show that the collection efficiency could be theoretical increase by one order of magnitude, which is confirmed by our micro-photoluminescence experiments on single quantum dots. This observation opens the way for advanced studies such as photon correlations experiments in the UV range.The second part of our work is devoted to the realization of a micro-laser operating in the deep-UV range at room-temperature. By using thin GaN/AlN quantum wells (2.8 monolayers), grown on silicon substrate and embedded in AlN microdisks, we observe a laser emission at 275 nm under pulsed optical pumping. This demonstration shows the strong potentiality for future developments of nitride-on-silicon nano-photonics.

There has been significant progress in the optical resolution of microscopes over the last two decades. However, the majority of currently used methods (e.g. STED, PALM, STORM) have a number of drawbacks, including high intensities of light that result in damage to living specimens in STED, and long data acquisition time leading to limitations on live-cell imaging. Therefore, there is a niche for faster image acquisition at lower intensities while maintaining resolution beyond the diffraction limit. Here, we have developed a new methodology - Quantum Dot-based Optical Spectral Separation (QDOSS) - which relies on using Quantum Dots (QDs) as fluorophores, and on their separation and localisation based on their spectral signatures. We utilise the key advantages of QDs over the usual organic fluorophores: broad excitation, narrow emission spectra and high resistance to photobleaching. Besides, since QDOSS is based on spectral differences for separation, QDs can be deterministically localised in a relatively short time - milliseconds and, potentially, microseconds. Last but not least, QDOSS is suitable for obtaining super-resolution images using a standard confocal fluorescence microscope equipped with a single laser excitation wavelength and capable of spectral signal separation (e.g. Leica TCS SP series or Zeiss LSM series). First, we demonstrated resolution down to 60 nm using triangular DNA origami as a reference. Furthermore, we labelled and imaged the alpha-tubulin structure in HEK293T cells. We showed that using a mixture of standard off-the-shelf QDs of different sizes, resolution down to 40 nm could be achieved via spectroscopic separation of QDs. Finally, we demonstrated that QDOSS could also be used for multicolour imaging of synaptic proteins distributed around synapsis in neurons within diffraction limit. All in all, we believe that these features of QDOSS make it a potential method for long-term live super-resolution imaging, which is going to have a high impact in biological sciences.

Terahertz (THz) technology is still currently a rapidly developing area of research with applications already demonstrated in the fields of biology, medicine, security, chemical/materials inspection and astrophysics to name a few. The diversity of applications which require the generation and measurement of THz or sub-millimeter (sub-mm) electromagnetic (EM) signals is the result of the vast number of chemical elements and compounds which exhibit molecular transitions and vibrational behavior that occur at frequency ranges corresponding to the so-called 'THz gap', roughly defined as 0.05-10 THz. The THz gap was named as such because of the relative difficulty in generating and analysing EM waves in this frequency band. This was due to the inherent challenges in generating either electrical signals with response periods below 1 picosecond (ps), or optical signals with wavelengths in the far-infrared (FIR) range. High absorption of THz signals in atmosphere via absorption by molecules such as H2O also impeded early developments and is a key issue in THz systems even today. There is now a wide variety of THz system solutions, each of which exhibits a different set of operational advantages and limitations. Arguably, the most well-established THz technique to date is based on the use of photoconductive antennas (PCAs) driven by ultrafast pulsed or dual-wavelength laser systems. This technique is the basis for the work presented in this thesis, which is an investigation into the potential utilisation of quantum dot (QD)-based semiconductor materials and devices in THz systems. This thesis discusses the work carried out in the development of a novel class of PCA devices which were postulated to enable efficient optical-to-THz signal conversion, whilst also overcoming several major limitations normally exhibited by PCA devices such as limited optical wavelength pumping range and thermal breakdown. To summarise briefly, these issues were addressed by considering: the additional pump absorption energy ranges enabled by the inclusion of multiple bandgap-engineered semiconductor materials and quantum-confined structures; the higher thermal conductivity and hence pump tolerance exhibited by relatively high-quality (low defect) absorption layers; and by simultaneously harnessing the ultrafast charge carrier modulation exhibited by the integrated QDs. Additionally, some work was carried out using QD-based lasers as pump sources, with the initial intention to explore the feasibility of a fully QD-based THz transceiver system and draw some conclusions as to the future potential for ultra-compact or even lab-on-chip THz systems, for example.

The increasing need for low power and stunningly fast devices in Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Very large Scale Integration (CMOS VLSI) circuits, directs the stream towards scaling of the same. However scaling at sub-micro level and nano level pose quantum mechanical effects and thereby limits further scaling of CMOS circuits. Researchers look into new aspects in nano regime that could effectively resolve this quandary. One such technology that looks promising at nano-level is the quantum dot cellular automata (QCA). The basic operation of QCA is based on transfer of charge rather than the electrons itself. The wave nature of these electrons and their uncertainty in device operation demands a probabilistic approach to study their operation. The data is assigned to a QCA cell by positioning two electrons into four quantum dots. However the site in which the electrons settles is uncertain and depends on various factors. In an ideal state, the electrons position themselves diagonal to each other, through columbic repulsion, to a low energy state. The quantum cell is said to be polarized to +1 or -1, based on the alignment of the electrons. In this thesis, we put forth a probabilistic model to design sequential QCA in Bayesian networks. The timing constraints inherent in sequential circuits due to the feedback path, makes it difficult to assign clock zones in a way that the outputs arrive at the same time instant. Hence designing circuits that have many sequential elements is time consuming. The model presented in this paper is fast and could be used to design sequential QCA circuits without the need to align the clock zones. One of the major advantages of our model lies in its ability to accurately capture the polarization of each cell of the sequential QCA circuits. We discuss the architecture of some of the basic sequential circuits such as J-K flip flop (FF), RAM memory cell and s27 benchmark circuit designed in QCADesigner. We analyze the circuits using a state-of-art Dynamic Bayesian Networks (DBN). To our knowledge this is the first time sequential circuits are analyzed using DBN. For the first time, Estimated Posterior Importance Sampling Algorithm (EPIS) is used to determine the probabilistic values, to study the effect due to variations in physical dimension and operating temperature on output polarization in QCA circuits.

Le statut ganglionnaire a la valeur pronostique la plus importante chez les patientes atteintes d'un cancer du sein, le taux de survie étant corrélé au nombre de ganglions envahis. Dans le traitement des cancers du sein opérables d'une taille inférieure à 3 cm, la technique du ganglion sentinelle (GS) remplace le curage ganglionnaire de stadification. Toutefois, cette technique nécessite l'emploi simultané de radioisotopes et de colorants physiologiques présentant divers effets secondaires. Ainsi, notre stratégie a été de tester, sur modèle pré-clinique de nouveaux traceurs fluorescents, les Quantum Dots (QDs), pour la technique du GS. Une étude sur la détection in vivo du ganglion axillaire (GA) par spectrofluorimétrie fibrée après injection sous-cutanée (s.c.) de QDs émettant dans le rouge a été réalisée et leur quantification ex vivo a été effectuée par spectrofluorimétrie jusqu'à 24 h. Ce travail a montré l'accumulation rapide et sélective des QDs dans le GA chez la souris. Une étude sur la localisation in vivo de 2 ganglions régionaux par imagerie de fluorescence a été réalisée suite à l'administration s.c. de QDs émettant dans le proche infrarouge (PIR) ainsi qu'une étude de biodistribution ex vivo par spectrométrie de masse (ICP-MS). Les résultats obtenus ont montré que l'imagerie de fluorescence pouvait être utilisée après injection de QDs pour localiser et suivre leur accumulation dans les ganglions superficiels chez la souris saine. Pour se rapprocher de la clinique, le repérage in vivo du GS axillaire a été investi sur modèle tumoral murin de cancer du sein par imagerie de fluorescence après administration s.c. de QDs émettant dans le PIR. Deux techniques de détection des métastases ganglionnaires ont été utilisées puis comparées : l'histologie conventionnelle et la RT-PCR. Tous les GS axillaires ont été détectés in vivo par imagerie, sauf un GS qui était complètement envahi par les cellules tumorales et la meilleure incidence de métastases ganglionnaire a été observée avec la RT-PCR. Ainsi, les QDs pourraient être utilisés comme substitut des marqueurs actuellement employés dans la technique du GS pour les cancers du sein.

Les diodes électroluminescentes hybrides organiques-inorganiques ou Quantum Dot- Light-Emitting Diodes (QD-LED) sont le parangon de dispositifs qui associeraient les propriétés semi-conductrices des matériaux organiques conjugués, ainsi que leur facilité de mise en oeuvre en couche mince, aux propriétés exceptionnelles (couleur accordable par la taille, bon rendement quantique de photoluminescence) des nanoparticules nanométriques de semi-conducteurs inorganiques, telles que CdSe/ZnS (TOPO). Diverses approches ont été explorées pour optimiser les QD-LEDs ; elles reposent sur la réalisation d'architectures diverses (uni, bi, tri couches) combinant matériaux organiques et QDs (en couche compacte ou dispersés dans une matrice), obtenues par diverses méthodes de dépôt (spin coating, tampon, impression jet d'encre). Dans ce travail de thèse, nous avons d'abord réalisé une structure originale sous forme de diodes comportant une couche hybride nanocomposite, obtenue en incorporant les QDs dans une matrice diélectrique de PMMA. Le but était de contrôler les flux de porteurs pour maximiser leur recombinaison sur les QDs. Les mesures des caractéristiques électriques, d'électro- et photoluminescence sont discutées, conjointement à des études de la morphologie des dépôts par AFM qui ont montré comment la microstructure dépendait des caractéristiques du, ou des, solvant(s) utilisé(s) pour le spin coating. D'une façon générale, les nanoparticules sont agrégées et la couche apparait inhomogène et rugueuse, ce qui permet des contacts entre les couches de transport. La faible électroluminescence résulterait de transferts d'excitation à partir d'états excités produits par les recombinaisons à ces endroits. Dans une seconde partie, nous avons déposé les QDs par spin coating à partir de solutions dans l'heptane, un solvant qui ne perturbe pas les couches organiques préalablement déposées. Les morphologies observées sont celles d'ilots compacts, avec des taux de couverture allant de 0 à 100%. La diminution, puis la disparition, de l'électroluminescence aux fortes couvertures confirme que l'émission des QDs provient exclusivement de transferts d'excitation à partir d'espèces excitées générées à l'interface organique-organique, en fonction de la nature des matériaux organiques. Les mécanismes d'injection des porteurs à la cathode, dépendant de la nature de celle-ci et de la couche de transport d'électrons, sont variables eux-aussi.

<p>This master’s thesis deals with studies of lateral and vertical carrier transport Dot-in- </p><p>a-Well (DWELL) Quantum Dot Infrared Photodetectors (QDIPs). During the pro ject, </p><p>devices have been developed and tested using a Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spec- </p><p>trometer with the purpose to find the processes governing the flow of photocurrent in </p><p>the different kinds of detectors, the dark current magnitude in the vertical Quantum Dot </p><p>Infrared Photodetector (QDIP) and the Quantum Well Infrared Photodetector (QWIP) </p><p>and the light polarization dependences for the vertical QDIP and the QWIP. </p><p>The lateral carrier transport DWELL QDIP was found to have poor conduction </p><p>in the well mainly due to re-trapping of electrons in this region. The main process gov- </p><p>erning the flow of photocurrent for this type of device at 77K is photo-excitation from </p><p>the Quantum Dot (QD)s to the excited state in the Quantum Well (QW) and further </p><p>thermal excitation. If the electrons are mainly transported in the matrix or the well at </p><p>77K is presently not clear. </p><p>For the vertical carrier transport DWELL QDIP at 77K, the wavelength response </p><p>could be tuned by altering the applied voltage. At higher voltages, the dominant process </p><p>was found to be photo-excitation from the QDs to the excited state in the QW followed </p><p>by thermal assisted tunneling into the GaAs-matrix. At lower voltages, photo-excitation </p><p>from the QDs directly into the the GaAs-matrix was the predominant process. The dark </p><p>current level in the vertical QDIPs was found to be 1.5 to 5 orders of magnitude smaller </p><p>than for the QWIP measured at 77K. Furthermore, the QDIP was found to be close to </p><p>polarization independent. As expected the QWIP had a reduced sensitivity to normal </p><p>incident light. The existence of this signal was attributed to interface scattering of light </p><p>inside the device.</p>

Photon detectors based on single-crystalline materials are of great interest for high performance imaging applications due to their low noise and fast response. The major detector materials for sensing in the long-wavelength infrared (LWIR) band (8-14 µm) are currently HgCdTe (MCT) and AlGaAs/GaAs quantum wells (QW) used in intraband-based quantum-well infrared photodetectors (QWIPs). These either suffer from compositional variations that are detrimental to the system performance as in the case of MCT, or, have an efficient dark current generation mechanism that limits the operating temperature as for QWIPs. The need for increased on-wafer uniformity and elevated operating temperatures has resulted in the development of various alternative approaches, such as type-II strained-layer superlattice detectors (SLSs) and intraband quantum-dot infrared photodetectors (QDIPs). In this work, we mainly explore two self-assembled quantum-dot (QD) materials for use as the absorber material in photon detectors for the LWIR, with the aim to develop low-dark current devices that can allow for high operating temperatures and high manufacturability. The detection mechanism is here based on type-II interband transitions from bound hole states in the QDs to continuum states in the matrix material. Metal-organic vapor-phase epitaxy (MOVPE) was used to fabricate (Al)GaAs(Sb)/InAs and In(Ga)Sb/InAs QD structures for the development of an LWIR active material. A successive analysis of (Al)GaAs(Sb) QDs using absorption spectroscopy shows strong absorption in the range 6-12 µm interpreted to originate in intra-valence band transitions. Moreover, record-long photoluminescence (PL) wavelength up to 12 µm is demonstrated in InSb- and InGaSb QDs. Mesa-etched single-pixel photodiodes were fabricated in which photoresponse is demonstrated up to 8 µm at 230 K with 10 In0.5Ga0.5Sb QD layers as the active region. The photoresponse is observed to be strongly temperature-dependent which is explained by hole trapping in the QDs. In the current design, the photoresponse is thermally limited at typical LWIR sensor operating temperatures (60-120 K), which is detrimental to the imaging performance. This can potentially be resolved by selecting a matrix material with a smaller barrier for thermionic emission of photo-excited holes. If such an arrangement can be achieved, type-II interband InGaSb QD structures can turn out to be interesting as a high-operating-temperature sensor material for thermal imaging applications. / <p>QC 20130521</p>