The main purpose of this thesis was to explore if there existed one single underlying semiotic function for representation. The problem was examined from both a theoretical and an empirical point of view. In the first part of this thesis the theoretical considerations about Piaget's hypothesis of a single semiotic function are described and compared with a number of alternative approaches. The hypothesis is critically analyzed and its limitations are pointed out. In the second part of this thesis the empirical studies are reported. One of the guiding lines for the experiments performed was the distinction made by Piaget between figurative and operative aspects of representation. The main conclusions to be drawn from the four studies were that they all supported, however tentatively, Piagets hypothesis of a single underlying semiotic function. In terms of figurative and operative aspects of cognition it was concluded that the underlying form (the operative aspect) at different ages is constant across the different representation modes. The differences found in the figurative aspect of representation were bound to the representation media, and could vary as a function of media, task demands and individual differences. In the third part of this thesis problems with representation media and task demands are discussed together with research in related areas of the semiotic function. The general conclusions drawns from this thesis were that there might exist a single underlying semiotic function for representation. The issue is neither simple nor uncomplicated. The distinction made between the figurative and operative aspect of representation is considered as one attempt to narrow down the generality of the hypothesis, and to distinguish between what is expected to be a universal aspect of the semiotic function and what varies as a function of media, task demands and individual-, social- , and cultural differences. / digitalisering@umu

Nearly all of the ways philosophers currently attempt to define the terms "representation" and "function" undermine the scientific application of those terms by rendering the scientific explanations in which they occur vacuous. Since this is unacceptable, we must develop analyses of these terms that avoid this vacuity.Robert Cummins argues in this fashion in Representations, Targets, and Attitudes. He accuses "use theories" of representational content of generating vacuous explanations, claims that nearly all current theories of representational content are use theories, and offers a non-use theory of representational content which avoids explanatory vacuity. According to this theory, representations are physically instantiated structures, and represent whatever other structures are isomorphic to them, regardless of how or whether these structures are used by some cognitive system. Unfortunately, since isomorphism is a rather weak constraint, Cummins' theory underdetermines representational content so severely that it too undermines explanatory appeals to representation. One task I undertake is to develop an alternative non-use theory which avoids this difficulty.My second task is to adapt Cummins' argument to criticize most current analyses of "function," which undermine scientific explanation in an analogous way. Though Cummins does not explicitly argue in this manner, his own analysis of "function," by avoiding any appeal to use, avoids the explanatory vacuity to which they succumb. Consequently, I endorse Cummins' notion of function, both as it appears in cognitive science, and elsewhere. However, although use theories fail as analyses of the terms "representation" and "function," I argue that they can still make significant contributions to the sciences employing these terms. For, while philosophers seeking to define "representation" and "function" must avoid incorporating representational and functional uses into their definitions, scientists must still find a way to determine which representations and functions are being used. Suitably re-construed use theories of representation and function may in many cases assist them in this task by providing principles for theory choice in the face of empirical underdetermination of facts about representational and functional use.

Many scholars believe in order to have democratic legitimacy, females should be represented in governing bodies at all levels. Significant literature on female descriptive representation in the U.S. for women’s policy responsiveness confirms the importance between the percentage of females in the legislature and public policy that represents women’s interests. At the same time, there is research suggesting female representatives do not always represent women’s interests. This study examined female descriptive representation and incorporation and its effect on substantive representation of female group salient issues and answered the following research question: Does an increase in female descriptive representation, institutional mechanisms of influence, or other political conditional factors lead to better substantive representation of female group salient issues? This research project replicated Robert Preuhs’ 2006 work by studying the conditional effects of female descriptive representation in the state legislature from 1983-2002. The study is important because it turns to state level data and accounts for all mechanisms of influence, as well as conditional effects of a liberal governing coalition, to determine whether female descriptive representation exerts policy influence. Five theoretical models were presented and tested in this work: The Presence Model, the Simple Incorporation Model, the Specific Institutional Incorporation Model, The Broad Institutional Incorporation Model, and The Party as a Substantive Representative Model. The dependent variables selected were per pupil educational expenditures, percentage of children without health insurance, welfare benefits, and percentage of child support collected. An OLS model with a lagged dependent variable and panel correlated standard errors was used to estimate the coefficients for each dependent variable. Female descriptive representation and incorporation did have some influence on substantive representation with welfare benefits and percentage of child support collected. The female influence is important and increasing the number of females in the legislature will result in more policy and benefits for issues important to women in society. However, examining the issues in a different way or with different dependent variables may provide better results indicating the importance of female descriptive representation on substantive representation of female group salient issues.

Research shows that Muslims are often reproduced within the context that reinforces stereotyping of Muslims, see for example Otterbeck and Schielke. They are often regarded as a collective group with no distinct individuals and thereby the Islamic religiosity is portrayed as different and deviant from the more secular and private practiced Protestantism that is a common belief in Sweden. The purpose of this work is to study the already existing representation of Muslim women in a Western context, i.e. Muslim women in Sweden. This is done through an analysis of two ethnographic interviews and observational studies, written by researchers in Sweden (Karlsson Minganti and Sultan Sjöqvist) to investigate the existence of an "us and them" mindset. The two ethnographic studies which are analyzed in this work, deal with different types of Muslims: women who have been Muslims since birth and converted Muslim women. Furthermore, each researcher's results are put in relation to postcolonial theories to interpret and understand the conclusions of the researchers. My conclusion is that there are clear tendencies of an "us and them" mindset, where researchers place their research object as "them". The women are portrayed as different, with different values in relation to the "Swedish society" or the "Western world". Many of the women show awareness of being assigned the position of "the others" by the society. The women, both the converted and the ones who have been Muslim since birth, think that they do not fall into the norm of whiteness, they do not identify themselves as the "normal western woman" and they position themselves as a minority, forming the notion that they are "them" and confirming the exclusion of themselves. Other clear trends are the researchers ways to interpret and understand women's lives on the basis of the white 'middle-class women's experiences and thereby excluding the Muslim women’s own perception of their conditions of life.

Abstract Title: A fair representation? A comparative study of the morning program guests and the context in which they are involved. Author: Hanna Brandt Parkvall & Adam Söderblom Tutor: Anne-Marie Morhed Purpose: This study aimed to investigate and compare the guests and the context in which they are involved, in the morning programs Gomorron Sverige on SVT1 and Nyhetsmorgon on TV4. The thesis is based on three questions that examine how representative the invited guests are in proportion to the country’s population, the subjects that occupy the most space and the types of guests that discuss these topics in the programs. Finally, it is investigated whether there are differences in the questions above between the two programs. Method/Material: The survey is based on a quantitative content analysis where 10 programs of each morning programs was studied and interpreted. Any guest who visited these programs were categorized into the variables gender, age, context (which identifies the context the guest is in) and space (which is measured in minutes and seconds) Main results: The survey 's key findings showed that both morning programs had a relatively good spread of their guests when it came to gender. When one takes the space in time into account, measured in minutes and seconds, as the male and female guests got on the shows, the result was different. The male guest had generally 1.25 minutes more time in both programs. The variables of age, ethnicity and context showed significant differences between the two programs. The program Nyhetsmorgon had greater variation in all the above categories. Common in both programs is that the older age groups (35-49 and 50-64) appeared the most. The two programs had no guest under 20. Ethnicity measured as minority or majority population, had low numbers in both channels in comparison with the fifth of the population that is foreign born or have two parents born abroad. That women and minorities have less space in the programs conform to the social theories, which describe a separation between “us and them”. Number of pages: 65 Course: Media and Communication studies C University: Division of Media and Communication, Department of Information Science, Uppsala University Period: Fall 2013 Keywords: Representation, gender, etnicity, TV

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Chicago, Dept. of Sociology, December 1997. / Includes bibliographical references. Also available on the Internet.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2004. / Typescript. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 237-248). Also available on the Internet.

Antrittsvorlesung - Salzburg, 1969. / Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2004. / Typescript. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 237-248). Also available on the Internet.

Habilitationsschrift--Johannes Kepler Universität Linz, 1977. / Includes bibliographical references (p. [437]-468) and index.