A inserção de DNA exógeno no genoma hospedeiro é conseguida principalmente através da utilização de vias de reparo como a junção de pontas não homólogas, que possui caráter aleatório, e a recombinação homóloga, que possibilita o gene targeting. Algumas ferramentas como as TAL Effector Nucleases (TALENs) e o RNA interferência (RNAi) podem ser utilizadas para aumentar a taxa de integração específica e assim melhorar a eficiência e o direcionamento da edição gênica. Nesse trabalho utilizamos o silenciamento gênico mediano por short interference RNA (siRNA) para inibição temporária dos genes ATF7IP uma metiltrasferase, EP300 uma acetiltransferase e KU70 (NHEJ) e um par de TALENs complementares a uma região do gene da distrofina canina. Células Caninas MDCK I foram transfectadas por lipofectamina 2000 (Invitrogen) com 320pmol de siRNAs para ATF7IP e Ep300; e 64 pmol do SiRNA para KU70 em diferentes grupos, 40 horas depois as células foram transfectadas com 15 μg vetor molde derivado do pEGFP-N1 (Clonatech) e com 10 μg dos RNAm das TALENs. A seleção se deu em meio DMEM high com 600μg/ mL de G418 (Lonza) por 14-16 dias. As colônias coletadas através de biópsias foram analisadas por Polimerase Chain Reaction e sequenciamento gênico. Três pares de primers foram utilizados; um controle endógeno (GAPDH), um controle interno do inserto (Neo qPCR) e um para confirmação da recombinação homóloga (DMD3). Os grupos apresentaram grande variação na taxa de mortalidade celular e consequentemente no número de colônias: Com o grupo ATF7IP+Vetor (648c) apresentando maior número de colônias e o grupo EP300+Ku70+Vetor+TALENs o menor (1c). A maior taxa de recombinação ocorreu nos grupos no grupo ATF7IP +Ku70+Vetor+TALENs com 40% das células positivas para neomicina apresentado o evento gene targeting, um aumento considerável na taxa de recombinação quando comparada a porcentagem de 3,1% do controle transfectado somente com o vetor molde. Mostrando que o uso conjunto das TALENs com siRNAs foi um sucesso para o aumento de eventos de edição gênica direcionada. / The insertion of exogenous DNA into a host genome is achieved primarily through the use of DNA repair pathways such as Non-Homologous End Joining (NHEJ) and the Homologous Recombination (HR). The integration by NHEJ has a random feature and is much more common than HR insertions, which are more likely to produce gene targeting events . TAL effector nucleases (TALENs) and RNA interference (RNAi) can be used to increase the rate of specific integration and thus improving the efficiency of gene editing. In this work, we used short interference RNA (siRNA)-mediated gene silencing for transient inhibition of genes ATF7IP (implicated in histone methylation), EP300 (acetyltransferase) and Ku70 (essential to NHEJ) and a pair of TALENs RNAm complementary to canine muscle dystrophin (DMD) gene. MDCK I Canine Cells were transfected by lipofectamine 2000 (Invitrogen) with 320 pmol of siRNAs for ATF7IP and EP300; and 64 pmol of siRNA for Ku70 in different groups. After 40 hours cells were transfected with 15 μg of a vector derived from pEGFP- N1 (Clontech) containing two regions homologous to the canine DMD gene (left arm length: 873 bp and right arm length: 1370 bp) and 10 μg of TALEN mRNA. The cell selection was achieved with DMEM high glucose with 600μg/ml G418 for 14-16 days. The colonies collected through biopsies were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction and gene sequencing. Three pairs of primers were used; an endogenous control (GAPDH) , an internal control of the insert (Neo qPCR) and a primer set to confirm the occurrence of homologous recombination events (DMD3). .Groups showed great variation in cell death rate and consequently in the number of colonies: ATF7IP+Vector had highest number of colonies (648c) and the group EP300+Ku70+Vetor+TALENs the lowest one (1c) The highest rate of homologous recombination was in ATF7IP +Ku70+Vetor+TALENs group that had 40% of the neomycin positives cells confirmed as gene targeting events, a considerable increase in the recombination rate compared to the 3.1% in the control group transfected only with the template vector. That shows that the combined use of siRNAs and TALENs was a success for increasing directed gene editing events.

HIPK2 (homeodomain interacting protein kinase 2) é uma proteína quinase nuclear, originalmente identificada por interagir com homeoproteínas. Sua atividade quinase contribui para a regulação de diversas vias, ativando o programa de morte celular em resposta a estímulos externos ou promovendo diferenciação celular por atuar como co-fator de homeoproteínas. A extensa similaridade estrutural com as outras proteínas da mesma família, HIPK1 e HIPK3, sugere que as três HIPKs possuem funções redundantes. Este trabalho pretendeu contribuir para a elucidação das funções de HIPK2 avaliando a expressão desta durante o desenvolvimento em camundongo. Observou-se ampla distribuição do transcrito desde o dia 9.5 pós-coito (dpc). Com o progresso do desenvolvimento, a expressão passou a se concentrar principalmente em tecidos nervosos, sugerindo uma participação de HIPK2 na morfogênese destes. Além disso, foi desenvolvido um sistema in vitro para se avaliar as funções de HIPK2 humana. A inibição de HIPK2 por RNAi em cultura celular humana levou ao aumento de expressão de genes HIPKs, indicando que possa haver um mecanismo de controle transcricional que ajuste os níveis de proteínas HIPKs na célula. O silenciamento de HIPK2 também provocou aumento de expressão de alguns genes homeobox avaliados, sugerindo que HIPK2 possa reprimir a expressão destes genes em humanos. A análise global de expressão gênica e proteômica nas células deficientes para HIPK2 poderá indicar as diferentes vias de atuação desta proteína. / HIPK2 is a nuclear protein kinase, originally identified because of its interaction with homeoproteins. Its kinase activity can regulate several pathways, triggering the apoptotic program in response to external stimuli or promoting differentiation by acting as a cofactor for homeoproteins. The extensive similarity with the other two proteins from the same family, HIPK1 and HIPK3, suggests that HIPKs have redundant functions. This work tried to contribute to the body of knowledge regarding the functions of HIPK2 addressing its expression during the mouse development. The transcript is broadly expressed in mouse embryos from day 9.5 post-coitum. As development progresses, its expression concentrates mainly in neural tissues, suggesting a role of HIPK2 in its morphogenesis. In addition, an in vitro system was developed to study HIPK2 functions in human cells. The HIPK2 silencing by RNAi in human cell culture led to a raise in expression of the other HIPKs genes, indicating that there might be a transcriptional mechanism controlling HIPKs proteins levels in the cell. HIPK2 inhibition also caused an increase in expression of some homeobox genes, suggesting that HIPK2 can negatively regulate their expression in humans. A global approach of gene expression and proteomics analysis in the HIPK2 deficient cells will help to identify different pathways in which HIPK2 participates.

Abelhas adultas produzem vitelogenina, a principal proteína da hemolinfa. Ela está envolvida na reprodução, comportamento, imunidade, longevidade e regulação da organização social. A interferência por RNA interference é a mais promissora ferramenta para estudos de função gênica, baseada na introdução de duplex de RNA (dsRNA) que induz a degradação de transcritos alvo-específicos. Injeção de dsRNA altera a transcrição de vitelogenina, mas evidências apontam que a ativação do sistema imune em abelhas seja um efeito colateral destaa manipulação. Desenvolvemos um método para o silenciamento do gene codificador de vitelogenina no desenvolvimento pós-embrionário, que minimiza os efeitos da manipulação, onde 0,5 ?g de dsRNA de vitelogenina (dsVg) ou de GFP (controle exógeno, dsGFP) foi oferecido na dieta natural de larvas de segundo estágio, as quais foram mantidas na colônia. Nosso enfoque principal foi a compreensão dos efeitos do silenciamento pós-transcricional de rainhas e operárias de A. mellifera, em especial na fase larval. Operárias adultas reconhecem larvas tratadas e as remove. Mantemos certa distância entre as células de cria que recebiam o tratamento e a remoção de larvas tratadas diminuiu consideravelmente. A expressão de transcritos de vitelogenina em indivíduos sem tratamento e tratados foi analisada no quinto estágio larval de ambas as castas, bem como em operárias adultas de 7 dias e rainhas recémnascidas, utilizando-se PCR em tempo real e a expressão do gene codificador de actina como controle endógeno. Em adultos, controles sem tratamento e dsGFP expressaram quantidades similares de transcritos de vitelogenina. Os grupos alimentados com dsVg tiveram expressão reduzida de vitelogenina, a saber: quinto estágio larval de operárias (91%) e de rainhas (71%), operárias de 7 dias (88%) e rainhas recém-nascidas (70%). O silenciamento da vitelogenina não afetou a morfologia dos adultos, mas sim a fisiologia de larvas de ambas as castas, como nos títulos de hormônio juvenil e concentração de proteínas circulantes na hemolinfa. Concluímos que a ingestão de dsRNA é um método não-invasivo que induz silenciamento gênico e, assim, uma ferramenta eficiente para estudos funcionais pós-genoma. Os mecanismos regulatórios do gene codificador de vitelogenina e seu papel na diferenciação de castas estão em discussão. / Adult bees produce vitellogenin (Vg), the main protein in hemolymph; it is involved in honey bee (Apis mellifera) reproduction, behavior, immunity, longevity and regulation of social organization. Genetic interference mediated by injection of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is a powerful tool for the analysis of gene function in Apis mellifera. Injection of dsRNA effectively alters vitellogenin transcription; however, evidence has been found of immune system activation in treated bees, which could be a collateral effect of treatment. Consequently, we developed a non-invasive protocol for disruption of the A. mellifera genes exemplified by vitellogenin mRNA silencing, to understand it, mainly, in the female larval context. Second instar larvae were treated as follows: the treatment group received 0,5 ?g of double-stranded vitellogenin RNA (dsVg) mixed with larval food deposited in the worker brood cells; control group 1 was left to develop without treatment, while control group 2 received dsGFP (Green Fluorescent Protein), as an exogenous control. Treated and control larvae were maintained in the colony until adult emergence. Workers recognized dsRNAtreated larvae and frequently removed them. To circumvent this problem we increased the distance between the treatment groups. Vg gene expression were determined for fifth instar larvae of both castes and for 7 day-old workers and newly-emerged queens, evaluated by quantitative real time PCR, using actin as an endogenous control. For adults, we found that controls, dsGFP- and non-treated bees expressed similar amounts of Vg transcripts. The dsVg-fed groups had significantly reduced Vg gene expression in fifth instar larvae of workers (91%) and queens (71%) and, also, in 7 day-old workers (88%) and newly-emerged queens (70%). Disruption of the Vg gene did not affect adults morphology but physiological larval traits of both castes, as juvenile hormone titre and protein concentration. We conclude that dsRNA ingestion is an effective non-invasive method for inducing knockdown and an efficient approach for post-genome functional studies. The regulatory mechanisms of vitellogenin gene and its rules during caste differentiation are discussed.

Desde seu descobrimento, o fenômeno de silenciamento gênico por RNA (RNAi) rapidamente se tornou uma técnica amplamente estudada e utilizada nos mais diversos aspectos da biologia molecular. Uma destas possibilidades é sua aplicação no campo da entomologia agrícola, mais especificamente para o controle de insetos-praga como uma alternativa de alta eficiência, especificidade e com impacto ambiental reduzido. Por meio da geração de plantas transgênicas expressando RNAi para genes essenciais de insetos-praga específicos, a ingestão destas moléculas de RNAi pelo inseto mediante herbivoria pode resultar no silenciamento do respectivo gene, resultando em fenótipos que podem variar entre perda de apetite, infertilidade ou até a morte. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo provar a viabilidade de aplicação desta técnica para a interação Tomateiro x Tuta absoluta, cultura de grande expressão econômica e social no mercado nacional e internacional e que é amplamente atacada por esta praga, com prejuizos que podem alcançar a ordem dos 100% da produção. Por meio da clonagem de genes ortólogos essenciais descritos na literatura e de genes altamente expressos nos primeiros estádios larvais, após a caracterização transcriptômica em escala do inseto, foram realizados ensaios de alimentação contendo moléculas de dsRNAs que possuíam estes genes como alvo. Também, foi realizado a transformação genética de tomateiro cultivar \"Micro-Tom\" com dois destes genes (V-ATPase A e Arginina kinase) para a realização de ensaios de herbivoria. Com os resultados obtidos nestes experimentos, foram mostradas sólidas evidências da viabilidade da técnica de RNAi para o controle de Tuta absoluta, evidenciado pelo silenciamento gênico específico observado no inseto e consequentemente os efeitos nocivos deste silenciamento. / Since their discovery, the phenomenon of gene silencing by RNA ( RNAi ) has rapidly become a widely studied and used technique in the molecular biological field. One of these possible applications is in the entomology field, more specifically for the control of insect pests, as a high efficiency, specificity and with reduced environmental impact alternative. Through the generation of transgenic plants expressing dsRNA targeting essential insect genes, their ingestion by the insect and consequently the uptake of the silencing RNA, may result in specific gene silencing, resulting in a variety of phenotypes that can range from loss of appetite, infertility to death. In this context, this study aimed to prove the feasibility of this technique to control tomato leaf miner (Tuta absoluta) in tomatoes plant, a major crop worldwide and seriously attacked by this pest, with losses that can reach 100%. For the present work, orthologous genes from successfully cases of insect gene silence described in the literature, was selected together with highly expressed genes in the early larval stages of T. absoluta, chosen after the insect molecular characterization and used in feeding assays with dsRNAs molecules to targeted these genes. Also, genetic transformation of the \"Micro-Tom\" tomato cultivar with two of these genes (V-ATPase and Arginine kinase) was conducted for testing in an herbivore assay. With these two approaches was possible to get solid evidences of the feasibility of the RNAi technique to control this insect, evidenced by specific gene silencing observed and its consequent effect on pest phenotype.

A inativação do cromossomo X (ICX) é o fenômeno através do qual um dos cromossomos X das fêmeas de mamíferos é silenciado para atingir compensação de dose em relação aos machos. Ela envolve a expressão do gene XIST exclusivamente no X inativo, e a associação em cis de seu RNA nesse cromossomo. Isso inicia a imposição de várias marcas epigenéticas no cromossomo X inativo, que garantem a manutenção deste estado de silenciamento transcricional de maneira estável durante todas as mitoses num organismo. Uma dessas modificações epigenéticas é a metilação do DNA, desempenhada principalmente pela enzima DNMT1. Os papéis de XIST e DNMT1 na manutenção da inativação do cromossomo X ainda são controversos em humanos, e nesse sentido foi objetivo desse trabalho analisar a possível função desses genes nesse processo em células humanas não transformadas. Foi otimizado um sistema experimental para o estudo de possíveis perturbações na manutenção da inativação do cromossomo X, onde a re-expressão de genes submetidos a esse processo pode ser monitorada. Nesse sistema foram identificados dois genes, MAOA e GYG2, cujo padrão de expressão no X inativo difere do previamente descrito. Demonstrou-se que baixos níveis de expressão do gene XIST foram suficientes para manter seu RNA associado ao X inativo, conservando o estado silenciado desse cromossomo. Além disso, foram obtidos indicativos de que a inibição de XIST em fibroblastos humanos gera uma diminuição da viabilidade celular. Foi possível demonstrar que DNMT1 é necessária para a manutenção da metilação global do genoma em células humanas não transformadas, e que eXISTe um mecanismo de compensação da inibição desse gene que leva ao aumento da expressão de DNMT3B. Ainda se observou que a repressão de DNMT1 não é suficiente para levar à reativação de genes no cromossomo X inativo. Além disso, a desmetilação encontrada nos promotores de MAOA e XIST não foi suficiente para levar à expressão destes genes nos cromossomo X inativo e ativo, respectivamente. Estes resultados enfatizam a necessidade de se estudar os mecanismos moleculares da ICX em humanos utilizando sistemas experimentais adequados para a análise de herança epigenética. / X chromosome inactivation (XCI) is the phenomenon through which one of the X chromosomes in female mammals is silenced to achieve dosage compensation related to males. It involves the expression of XIST gene exclusively from the inactive X, and the association of its RNA in cis in this chromosome. This leads to a series of epigenetic modifications in the chromatin of the inactive X (Xi) that guarantee a stable maintenance of the transcriptional silence through all the mitoses in the organism. One of these epigenetic modifications is DNA methylation, achieved mainly by the maintenance DNA methylase DNMT1. The roles of XIST and DNMT1 in the maintenance phase of XCI are controversial in humans. Therefore, the main goal of this present work was to analyze some of the possible functions of these genes in this process in untransformed human cells. An experimental system was optimized to study possible disturbances in maintenance of XCI, where the re-expression of genes submitted to this process could be monitored. In this system we identified two genes, MAOA and GYG2, whose pattern of expression on the Xi, differed from what had been previously described. It was demonstrated that low levels of XIST expression were sufficient to keep its RNA associated to the Xi, assuring the silenced state of this chromosome. Besides, evidences have been found that XIST inhibition in human fibroblasts reduces cellular viability. It was possible to demonstrate that DNMT1 is necessary to the maintenance of global genome methylation in untransformed human cells, and the eXISTence of a compensation mechanism involving DNMT3B upregulation. It was also observed that repression of DNMT1 was not sufficient to reactivate genes of the Xi chromosome. Additionally, demethylation of MAOA and XIST promoters was not enough to cause expression of these genes on the inactive and active Xs, respectively. All these results emphasize the requirement of studying the molecular mechanisms of XCI in humans using experimental systems appropriate for the analysis of epigenetic inheritance.

Ce travail décrit un criblage systématique du système ubiquitine-protéasome (UPS) basé sur une organisation en cascade. Nous avons évalué l’effet de l’inhibition par ARN interférent de composants individuels d’UPS sur la viabilité de cellules cancéreuses de la prostate, avec un accent particulier sur les cellules TMPRSS:ERG-positive (VCaP), comme un modèle de phénotype prévalent du cancer. Sept gènes ont été identifiés comme étant particulièrement importants pour le fonctionnement des cellules cancéreuses de la prostate. Parmi eux, le gène-candidat le plus prometteur était UBE2U. Cette thèse met en évidence l’implication d’UBE2U dans la carcinogénèse de la prostate et décrit les premières caractérisations d’UBE2U comme une cible thérapeutique potentielle.La prévalence des composants de la voie CRL/NEDD8 parmi les hits (4 sur 7) suggère que la neddylation est importante dans la biologie des cellules cancéreuses de la prostate. Deux de ces gènes, CUL2 et RBX1, n’ont des effets spécifiques que dans des cellules TMPRSS2:ERG-positives, et, donc, sont potentiellement ERG-dépendantes. Nous avons également révélé un rôle crucial du facteur d’échange de CRL (CAND1), en particulier lorsque la neddylation est compromise. L’inhibition de CAND1 induit l’apoptose dans des cellules VCaP, qui est renforcé par l’inhibiteur spécifique de la neddylation MLN4924. CAND1 est donc une nouvelle cible thérapeutique potentielle. Par ailleurs, nous avons démontré que l’inhibition de la voie CRL/NEDD8 dans les cellules cancéreuses de prostate a des conséquences qui dépendent fortement du contexte cellulaire. L’inhibiteur MLN4924 induit l’apoptose dans toutes les lignées cellulaires testées, bien que les cellules TMPRSS2:ERG-positives se soient révélées significativement plus résistantes. Nous avons démontré que la résistance accrue des cellules VCaP reflète la plasticité des cellules cancéreuses régulée par un réseau d’interactions ERG:NF-kB:c-Myc:Wnt/β-cat:AR. L’inhibition partielle de la neddylation enclenche une reprogrammation transcriptionnelle de cellules VCaP, amenant à la quiescence des cellules et à l’inhibition de l’apoptose dépendant de la prolifération. Cet effet est le résultat de la réactivation du programme AR. Nous avons conclus que la voie CRL/NEDD8 régule le réseau transcriptionnel qui contrôle la plasticité des cellules cancéreuses. Ces résultats peuvent aider à trouver des traitements plus efficaces de cancers TMPRSS2:ERG-positifs.Finalement, nous avons observé que l’inhibition de la neddylation modifie les propriétés de la membrane et la morphologie des cellules VCaP. Cet effet est accompagné par des changements du taux et de la localisation de plusieurs protéines associées à la membrane, y compris l’occludine, la N-cadherine, la paxilline and FAK. Nous en avons conclus que la voie CRL/NEDD8 pourrait être impliquée dans le tri/trafic des protéines membranaires. Cette partie du projet nécessite de plus amples études, étant donné que la compréhension des mécanismes sous-jacents est importante et peut mettre à jour un nouveau rôle de la voie CRL/NEDD8 dans la régulation des fonctions cellulaires.Conclusion générales :1. Nous avons caractérisé l’implication de tous les composants E1-E2 d’UPS dans la régulation de la viabilité des cellules cancéreuses de prostate (avec cinq différentes lignées cellulaires).2. Nos travaux ont mise en évidence de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques potentielles pour le traitement du cancer, telles qu’UBE2U et CAND1.3. Nous avons démontré le rôle de la voie CRL/NEDD8 dans la régulation de la plasticité et de la morphologie des cellules cancéreuses. / In this work we describe a systematic approach for screening of ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) based on cascade organization. We have evaluated the effect of RNAi knockdown of individual UPS components on viability of PCa cells with major focus on TMPRSS:ERG-positive cell line, VCaP, as a model of prevalent phenotype of prostate cancer. Seven genes have been identified to be particularly important for the functioning of PCa cells. Among them, UBE2U was the strongest hit. This thesis provides the first evidence for UBE2U involvement in prostate carcinogenesis and describes initial characterization of UBE2U as a potential drug-target.The prevalence of the components of CRL/NEDD8 pathway in the hits (four out of seven) suggested the importance of neddylation for PCa biology. Two of these hits, CUL2 and RBX1, being specific to TMPRSS2:ERG-positive cells, are potentially ERG-dependent. We have also revealed the crucial role of CRL-exchange factor CAND1, in particular, when the neddylation is compromised. Knockdown of CAND1 induces apoptosis in VCaP cells that is further potentiated by neddylation-specific inhibitor MLN4924. CAND1 is, therefore, a novel potential drug target. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that the inhibition of CRL/NEDD8 pathway in prostate cancer cells has a complex outcome that strongly depends on cellular context. MLN4924 inhibitor induced apoptosis in all tested cell lines, though TMPRSS2:ERG positive cells were significantly more resistant. We have demonstrated that the increased resistance of VCaP cells reflects the plasticity of cancer cells ensured by sophisticated interaction network ERG:NF-kB:c-Myc:Wnt/β-cat:AR. We found that partial inhibition of neddylation triggered transcriptional reprogramming of VCaP cells leading to cell quiescence and inhibition of proliferation-dependent apoptosis. This was a result of re-activation of AR program and induction of differentiation-like state. We conclude that CRL/NEDD8 pathway regulates cancer transcriptional network that underlies cancer cells plasticity. This knowledge would help to find better treatments for TMPRSS2:ERG-positive cancers.Finally, we observed that neddylation inhibition changed membrane properties and morphology of VCaP cells. This was accompanied by dose-dependent changes in the level and the localization of several membrane-associated proteins, including occludin, N-cadherin, paxillin and FAK. We thus conclude that CRL/NEDD8 pathway might be involved in sorting/trafficking of membrane proteins. This part of the work requires further investigation, as understanding of the underlying mechanisms is of general importance and may uncover a new role of CRL/NEDD8 pathway in regulation of cellular functions.General conclusions:1. We have obtained a comprehensive dataset on the involvement of all human E1-E2 UPS components in the regulation of viability of PCa cells, represented by five different cell lines.2. Our work has revealed new potential drug targets for PCa treatment: UBE2U and CAND1.3. We have demonstrated the role of CRL/NEDD8 pathway in the regulation of cancer cell plasticity and morphology.

Variability of transgene expression levels resulting from gene silencing is considered as ahindrance to the successful application of plant genetic engineering. Towards alleviatinggene silencing, I decided to screen for novel genes involved in transgene silencing and toinvestigate how these genes regulate plant development. Genes encoding putative chromatinremodeling factors, especially those including a SET domain, were selected as candidatetargets. A bioinformatic analysis of the Arabidopsis SET genes (AtSET) was performed andthese genes were classified into 6 groups based on the domain architecture. RNA interference (RNAi) vectors were constructed for ~ 20 AtSET genes and wereintroduced into both wild type lines and transgenic lines silenced for a GFP reporter gene.Surprisingly, altered developmental phenotypes were only observed for three constructs,raising questions as to the effectiveness of the RNAi approach for the chosen Arabidopsissystem. To assess this situation, I targeted a phytoene desaturase (PDS) gene using the sameRNAi approach. Inactivation of PDS renders plant a readily identifiable phenotype. Whereasthe RNAi penetrance in Arabidopsis can be very high, the expressivity of RNAi in varioustissues and among different plants can vary dramatically. Contradictory to previous reports,I found that there is correlation between transcript level and silencing phenotype. Possiblereasons for this discrepancy are discussed. No apparent correlation between transgene copynumber and RNAi phenotypes was observed. Among the three RNAi constructs that caused an abnormal development inArabidopsis, K-23 which targets SuvR3 has the highest expressivity and could reactivate asilenced GFP locus. SuvR3 RNAi lines were selfed for six generations and were screenedfor morphological phenotypes. Abnormal number of flower organs, loss of viability of malegametophytes, and decreased seedling germination percentage were found in SuvR3 RNAilines. A progressive increase in both severity and frequency of abnormal phenotypes wereseen in subsequent generations, suggesting an epigenetic regulatory mechanism involvedwith SuvR3. Alternative splicing of SuvR3 was also observed in most of Arabidopsis tissues.One of the protein isoforms, SuvR3, lacks 16 amino acids within the highly conserved SETdomain. Possible effects of isoform interaction are proposed.

During an adenovirus infection the accumulation of alternatively spliced mRNAs is subjected to a tight temporal regulation. The IIIa protein is a structural protein expressed exclusively late after infection. To study the significance of the restricted IIIa protein expression we used a Tet-ON regulated adenoviral vector to overexpress the IIIa protein during the early phase of infection. The results show that unregulated IIIa protein expression caused a reduction in late viral protein accumulation and a slight block of viral DNA replication. Further, the results indicate that IIIa splicing might be subjected to a regulation via a feed back loop stimulating its own expression. To improve the efficacy of vectors for regulated transgene expression, we constructed binary adenoviral vectors based on the Tet-ON and Tet-OFF systems. These vectors encode both the transcriptional activator and the tetracycline-regulated expression cassette from the same viral unit, ensuring that each infected cell will express both the activator and the reporter gene. In model experiments this system was shown to result in a tight control of gene expression with no detectable background expression of the transgene and induction levels reaching 500-600 fold. Introduction of dsRNA into a cell will induce a sequence specific degradation of the homologous mRNA via a mechanism named RNA interference (RNAi). The adenovirus VA RNAs are short highly structured RNAs that are expressed in large amounts late during an adenovirus infection. Here we showed that both VA RNAI and VA RNAII functions as virus-encoded suppressors of RNAi, by interfering with the activity of Dicer, the enzyme that cleaves the initial dsRNA to short-interfering RNAs (siRNAs) that mediate RNAi. Further, the VA RNAs themselves are substrates for Dicer and are cleaved into siRNAs in vivo that are incorporated into active RNA-induced silencing complexes. There is a great interest in developing novel therapeutic strategies based on RNAi. We constructed adenoviral vectors that express short hairpin RNAs, which in vivo will be cleaved to siRNAs that induce sequence-specific RNAi. We compared the efficiency of RNAi induced by vectors based on the viral VA RNAI and the human U6 promoters. Our results suggest that under conditions where the recombinant virus does not replicate, the VA RNA promoter is more effective in down regulating target gene expression, whereas the U6 promoter was more effective under replicative conditions.

Die Mykorrhiza (griechisch: mýkēs für „Pilz”; rhiza für „Wurzel”) stellt eine Symbiose zwischen Pilzen und einem Großteil der Landpflanzen dar. Der Pilz verbessert durch die Symbiose die Versorgung der Pflanze mit Nährstoffen, während die Pflanze den Pilz mit Kohlenhydraten versorgt. Die arbuskuläre Mykorrhiza (AM) stellt dabei einen beson-dere Form der Mykorrhiza dar. Der AM-Pilz bildet dabei während der Symbiose die namensgebenden Arbuskeln innerhalb der Wurzelzellen als Ort des primären Nährstoff- austausches aus. Die AM-Symbiose (AMS) ist der Forschungsschwerpunkt dieser Arbeit. Als Modellorganismen wurden Medicago truncatula und Glomus intraradices verwendet. Es wurden Transkriptionsanalysen durchgeführt um u.a. AMS regulierte Transkriptions- faktoren (TFs) zu identifizieren. Die Aktivität der Promotoren von drei der so identifizier-ten AMS-regulierten TFs (MtOFTN, MtNTS, MtDES) wurde mit Hilfe eine Reportergens visualisiert. Der Bereich der größten Promotoraktivität waren in einem Fall nur die ar- buskelhaltigen Zellen (MtOFTN). Im zweiten Fall war der Promotor auch aktiv in nicht arbuskelhaltigen Zellen, jedoch am stärksten aktiv in den arbuskelhaltigen Zellen (MtNTS). Ein weiterer Promotor war in arbuskelhaltigen Zellen und den diesen benach-barten Zellen gleich aktiv (MtDES). Zusätzlich wurden weitere Gene als AMS-reguliert identifiziert und es wurde für drei dieser Gene (MtPPK, MtAmT, MtMDRL) ebenfalls eine Promotor::Reporter-Aktivitäts- studie durchgeführt. Die Promotoren der Kinase (MtPPK) und des Ammoniumtrans-porters (MtAmt) waren dabei ausschließlich in arbuskelhaltigen Zellen aktiv, während die Aktivität des ABC-Transporters (MtMDRL) keinem bestimmten Zelltyp zuzuordnen war. Für zwei weitere identifizierte Gene, ein Kupfertransporter (MtCoT) und ein Zucker- bzw. Inositoltransporter (MtSuT), wurden RNA-Interferenz (RNAi)-Untersuchungen durchgeführt. Dabei stellte sich in beiden Fällen heraus, dass, sobald ein RNAi-Effekt in den transformierten Wurzeln vorlag, diese in einem deutlich geringerem Ausmaß wie in der Wurzelkontrolle von G. intraradices kolonisiert worden sind. Im Falle von MtCoT könnte das aus dem selben Grund geschehen, wie im Falle von MtPt4. Welche Rolle MtSuT genau in der Ausbildung der AMS spielt und welche Rolle Inositol in der Aus- bildung der AMS spielt müsste durch weitere Untersuchungen am Protein untersucht werden. Weitere Untersuchen an den in dieser Arbeit als spezifisch für arbuskelhaltige Zellen gezeigten Genen MtAmT, MtPPK und MtOFTN könnten ebenfalls aufschlussreich für das weitere Verständnis der AMS sein. Dies trifft auch auf die TFs MtNTS und MtDES zu, die zwar nicht ausschließlich arbuskelspezifisch transkribiert werden, aber auch eine Rolle in der Regulation der AMS innerhalb von M. truncatula Wurzeln zu spielen scheinen. / The mycorrhiza (Greek: mýkēs for "mushroom"; rhiza for "root") is a symbiosis between fungi and the vast majority of land plants. The fungus improves the nutrient supply of the plant, while the plant provides the fungus with carbohydrates. The arbuscular my-corrhiza (AM) represents a special type of mycorrhiza. The AM forms during the sym-biosis eponymous arbuscules within the root cells as the supposed site of the major nu-trient exchange. The AM symbiosis (AMS) is the research focus of this work. Medicago truncatula and Glomus intraradices were used as model organisms. During the project several transcription analysis were performed to identify AMS re-gulated transcription factors (TFs). The activity of the promoters of three of the identified AMS regulated TFs (MtOFTN, MtNTS, MtDES) were visualised using a reporter gene. Cells with promoter activity were in one case the arbuscle containing cells (MtOFTN). In the another case, the promoter was also weakly active in non arbuscle containing cells, however the major site of activity were the arbuscle containing cells (MtNTS). Another promoter was active in arbuscle containing and adjacent cells (MtDES). In addition, other genes were identified as AMS regulated and for three of these genes (MtPPK, MtAmT, MtMDRL) a promoter::reporter activity study was conducted, too. The promoters of the kinase (MtPPK) and the ammonium transporter (MtAmT) were active exclusively in arbuscle containing cells, whereas the activity of the ABC-transporter (MtMDRL) could not be assigned to a specific cell type. For two other identified genes (a copper transporter (MtCoT) and a sugar/ inositol transporter (MtSuT)) RNA-interference (RNAi) studies were carried out. The studies revealed in both cases that, once an RNAi effect was present in the transformed roots, the roots were colonised by G. intraradices in a much lesser extent as in the vector-control. In the case of MtCoT it maybe has the same basic principle as in the case of the phosphate transporter MtPt4. Which role MtSuT and inositol plays during the fo-rmation of the AMS has to be reviewed. Further examinations on the genes MtAmT, MtPPK and MtOFTN could also be reveal-ing for the understanding of the AMS, as their promotors, as shown in this thesis, are exclusively active in arbuscle containing cells The same can be said for the TFs MtNFTS and MtDES. They are not exclusively transcripted in arbuscle containing cells, but nevertheless seem to play a role in the formation of the AMS within M. truncatula roots.

Variability of transgene expression levels resulting from gene silencing is considered as ahindrance to the successful application of plant genetic engineering. Towards alleviatinggene silencing, I decided to screen for novel genes involved in transgene silencing and toinvestigate how these genes regulate plant development. Genes encoding putative chromatinremodeling factors, especially those including a SET domain, were selected as candidatetargets. A bioinformatic analysis of the Arabidopsis SET genes (AtSET) was performed andthese genes were classified into 6 groups based on the domain architecture. RNA interference (RNAi) vectors were constructed for ~ 20 AtSET genes and wereintroduced into both wild type lines and transgenic lines silenced for a GFP reporter gene.Surprisingly, altered developmental phenotypes were only observed for three constructs,raising questions as to the effectiveness of the RNAi approach for the chosen Arabidopsissystem. To assess this situation, I targeted a phytoene desaturase (PDS) gene using the sameRNAi approach. Inactivation of PDS renders plant a readily identifiable phenotype. Whereasthe RNAi penetrance in Arabidopsis can be very high, the expressivity of RNAi in varioustissues and among different plants can vary dramatically. Contradictory to previous reports,I found that there is correlation between transcript level and silencing phenotype. Possiblereasons for this discrepancy are discussed. No apparent correlation between transgene copynumber and RNAi phenotypes was observed. Among the three RNAi constructs that caused an abnormal development inArabidopsis, K-23 which targets SuvR3 has the highest expressivity and could reactivate asilenced GFP locus. SuvR3 RNAi lines were selfed for six generations and were screenedfor morphological phenotypes. Abnormal number of flower organs, loss of viability of malegametophytes, and decreased seedling germination percentage were found in SuvR3 RNAilines. A progressive increase in both severity and frequency of abnormal phenotypes wereseen in subsequent generations, suggesting an epigenetic regulatory mechanism involvedwith SuvR3. Alternative splicing of SuvR3 was also observed in most of Arabidopsis tissues.One of the protein isoforms, SuvR3, lacks 16 amino acids within the highly conserved SETdomain. Possible effects of isoform interaction are proposed.