The unfortunate disparity in achievement among minority and low income students is well-documented. Multiple social, structural, and psychological variables have been presented to try to explain the achievement gap. Researchers have also considered an individual’s racial-ethnic identity (REI) as an important variable that contributes to achievement outcomes. Oyserman and colleagues developed a model of REI that emphasizes three key factors of one’s racial-ethnic identity that have a direct impact on achievement. Further, her model posits that the interaction between two key REI variables, feelings of connectedness to one’s REI group (connectedness) and the perception that one’s racial-ethnic group values achievement (embedded achievement), contributes to positive achievement outcomes. Although research has suggested that REI significantly impacts achievement, the specific processes by which this occurs are less known. Considering the social-cognitive literature, it is plausible that different psychological and motivational beliefs mediate the relationship between REI and achievement-related outcomes. This dissertation study examines the mediating effect of sense of school belonging and perceived sense of school engagement on the relationship between REI (embedded achievement and connectedness) and academic achievement of minority middle school students longitudinally through the use of structural equation modeling. Results indicate that embedded achievement significantly predicts academic achievement. Furthermore, sense of belonging to school mediates this relationship for all racial and gender groups. Results also revealed that embedded achievement significantly predicted student perceived engagement for Hispanic students. Strategies to promote sense of belonging and embedded achievement at the personal, structural, community, peer, and family levels are discussed.

The current study examined the relationship between the three components of racial-ethnic identity (REI)- Connectedness, Embedded Achievement, and Awareness of Racism- and academic engagement in middle school African American (n=62) and Latino (n=30) youth. We hypothesized the three components of REI would be able to predict academic engagement in the youth, as well as an interaction between ethnicity and the REI components. A hierarchical regression revealed Connectedness and Embedded Achievement were both accurate predictors of student’s academic engagement. In addition, an interaction between Embedded Achievement and ethnicity was also present in the current study. The results indicate that African American youth who have higher levels of Embedded Achievement are more likely to have a higher academic engagement levels while the academic engagement of Latino youth remained fairly constant regardless of level of Embedded Achievement.

The current study aimed to explore the direct effect of insecure adult attachment on subjective wellbeing and its indirect effect via racial-ethnic identity. Additionally, the present study examined the extent to which racial-ethnic socialization practices may moderate adult attachment and racial-ethnic identity link. The final sample included 213 emerging adults (M = 20.94; SD = 2.96) with diverse racial-ethnic backgrounds. PROCESS Model 4 and 1 were used to examine the direct and indirect effect of insecure attachment on subjective wellbeing via racial-ethnic identity variables and the interaction effect between insecure attachment and racial-ethnic socialization on racial-ethnic identity variables. Results indicated the direct effect of insecure attachment on subjective wellbeing but did not support hypotheses for the indirect effect of insecure attachment on subjective wellbeing via the racial-ethnic identity variables. Additionally, results indicated that overt socialization buffered the negative impact of attachment avoidance on racial-ethnic identity exploration. Furthermore, racial-ethnic identity variables and subjective wellbeing significantly differed across racial-ethnic groups and socioeconomic statuses. Findings provide insight on the distinct concepts of attachment and racial-ethnic identity as they highlight inter- and intra-personal components, respectively. Mental health professionals may utilize overt socialization to help clients develop a sense of purpose and meaning related to their identity. Limitations, future research directions, and counseling implications are discussed.

Studies indicate that global self-esteem, an individual's overall sense of self-worth, and academic self-esteem, self-worth related to academics, are positively related to academic achievement. This relationship holds for white adolescents. However, while still positive, this relationship is weaker for African Americans, who have high global and academic self-esteem, but very low academic achievement. Patterns for Mexican Americans are less clear, but their global and academic self-esteem appear to fall between the range for white and African American adolescents, while their academic achievement is similar to that of African Americans. To address this, I construct Combinatoric Identity Theory (CIT), a symbolic interactionist theory that incorporates the importance of racial/ethnic and student identities into our current understandings of self-esteem and achievement. I then apply CIT to data collected on Mexican American and white tenth-graders.After a discussion of the relevant literature on education, self-esteem, and identity, I discuss my data collection strategy and techniques. This is followed by empirical analysis. Results indicate that identity processes do affect self-esteem, and that they operate in similar ways for Mexican American and white adolescents. Implications of these results and directions for future research are then presented.

Victims of racial discrimination often experience negative consequences that extend into all aspects of well-being (e.g., psychological, subjective, social). Racial microaggressions describe a series of verbal and non-verbal behaviors that cause harm, perpetuate negative stereotypes, and negate the experience of racial/ethnic minorities. Research has found a negative relationship between experiencing racial discrimination and psychological well-being, as well as a potential buffering effect of racial/ethnic identity. However, less information is available about the existence of these relationships with social well-being. The purpose of this dissertation is to fill a gap in the literature in regard to racial microaggressions, racial/ethnic identity, and social well-being in 453 racially diverse undergraduate students. Quantitative results indicated that African Americans reported higher levels of racial microaggressions and racial/ethnic identity than other groups, racial microaggressions were negatively associated with sense of belonging, racial/ethnic identity was positively associated with sense of belonging, and the association between racial microaggressions and sense of belonging was not moderated by racial/ethnic identity. Qualitative analyses using the conventional content analysis revealed two clusters of facilitative behavioral expressions of university/community inclusion: (a) interpersonal expressions of inclusion and (b) systemic expression of inclusion. I conclude by discussing limitations, areas for future research, and implications for counseling.

Sexual violence (SV) is a pressing concern in the United States. SV (i.e., unwanted sexual contact, coercion, and wanted or unwanted penetration of another). Individuals with minoritized sexual, racial/ethnic, and gender identities experience worse psychosocial outcomes than their majority counterparts. People with multiple marginalized identities have been shown to experience traumatic events at greater rates and with significantly different outcomes compared to those with one minoritized identity. Cultural betrayal trauma theory proposes that these differences in mental health outcomes may be explained in part by a shared cultural identity between a SV perpetrator and victim, which is posited to exacerbate mental health symptomology. This study's sample consisted of 276 participants who were over the age of 18 and identified with both minoritized sexual and racial/ethnic identities. Results of this study failed to support most of the study's hypotheses yet confirmed that increase in mental health symptomology is associated with SV experience. This study indicates that research of cultural betrayal trauma may necessitate a more nuanced approach among individuals with multiple marginalized identities.

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Legalised desegregation through the implementation of the South African Schools law (Law no. 84 of 1996) sparked the hope of an opportunity to promote integration between learners and more than that, that the former would also extend to the larger community. The media has however indicated that racial-integration in schools is not necessarily experienced as positive by all the role players and that the process does not present itself as being problem-free. The goal of this study was to investigate the experiences of racial minority groups within majority school contexts; the challenges that are posed to them within the contexts; the factors that may play a role in their adjustment and functioning within the context; the negotiation of racial-ethnicity and social identity that accompanies it, and the possible relationship that exists between the former and their emotional intelligence (EI). These goals were realised through the launch of a theoretical, as well as an empirical investigation of aforementioned aspects related to the life worlds of racial minority groups in a majority school context. The empirical investigation was conducted from an INTERPRETIVISTIC-positivistic paradigm. Two schools where white and black learners are respectively in the minority were involved in the study. All the learners (grade 9-12) that were regarded as part of the racial minority group in the involved schools, were asked to complete an EI-questionnaire, the EQ-i:YV, after which six participants (three males and three females) from each school were selected on the basis of their scores achieved on the previously mentioned questionnaire. Afterwards qualitative techniques (focus groups, semi-structured interviews, observations and reflection) were implemented to investigate the (racial and social) identity negotiation, adjustment and functioning of the participants in their respective school contexts. The former was also related to their EI. Triangulation and crystallisation were implemented to verify the findings. Racism was identified as the biggest stumbling block to successful integration in the white school context, whereas language appeared to be the biggest stumbling block of the white participants’ adjustment and functioning within their black school context. Social categorisation emerged as a reality in both school contexts and white learners appeared to be evaluated as the higher-status group in both schools. From the results it appears that no relationship worth mentioning exists between the white participants’ EI and their identity negotiation within a black school context, whilst it appears as if a small relationship exists between the black participants’ EI and their identity-negotiation within a white school context. It appears however that a strong relationship exists between participants’ EI and their adjustment and functioning within their majority school context. The following additional factors (that are not applicable to EI) that can play a possible role in the adjustment and functioning of racial minority groups in majority school contexts have also been identified: home circumstances, faith, recognition of sport and/or cultural achievement and the support of one or more parents. AFRIKAANS : Daar is met die wettiging van desegregasie deur die Suid-Afrikaanse Skolewet (Wet no. 84 van 1996) gehoop dat die geleentheid geskep sou word om integrasie tussen leerders te bevorder en dat voorgenoemde na die breër gemeenskap sou uitkring. Uit die media blyk dit egter dat rasse-integrasie in skole allermins positief deur al die rolspelers beleef word en dat die proses nie sonder probleme verloop nie. Die doel van hierdie studie was om ondersoek in te stel na rasseminderheidsgroepe se belewenis van meerderheidskoolkontekste; die uitdagings wat binne hierdie kontekste aan hulle gestel word; die faktore wat moontlik ‘n rol in hulle aanpassing en funksionering in hierdie kontekste speel; die onderhandeling van ras-etniese en sosiale identiteit wat daarmee gepaard gaan, en die moontlike verband wat tussen voorgenoemde en hul emosionele intelligensie (EI) bestaan. Hierdie doelstellings is gerealiseer deur ‘n teoretiese, sowel as ‘n empiriese ondersoek na voorgenoemde aspekte van die leefwêrelde van rasseminderheidsgroepe in meerderheidskoolkontekste te loods. Die empiriese ondersoek is vanuit ‘n INTERPRETIVISTIES-positivistiese paradigma onderneem. Twee skole waar wit en swart leerders onderskeidelik in die minderheid is, is by die studie betrek. Al die leerders (graad 9-12) wat as deel van die rasseminderheidsgroep in die betrokke skole beskou kon word, is gevra om ‘n EI-vraelys, die EQ-i:YV, te voltooi, waarna ses deelnemers (drie seuns en drie dogters) op grond van die tellings wat hulle op voorgenoemde vraelys behaal het, geselekteer is. Kwalitatiewe tegnieke (fokusgroepe, semi-gestruktureerde onderhoudvoering, observasie en refleksie) is daarna geïmplementeer om die (ras-etniese en sosiale) identiteitsonderhandeling, aanpassing en funksionering van die deelnemers in hul onderskeie skoolkontekste te ondersoek. Voorgenoemde is ook met hul EI in verband gebring. Triangulasie en kristallisasie is geïmplementeer om bevindinge te verifieer. Rassisme is as die grootste struikelblok tot suksesvolle integrasie in die wit skoolkonteks geïdentifiseer, terwyl taalprobleme die grootste struikelblok in die wit deelnemers se aanpassing en funksionering in hul swart skoolkonteks blyk te wees. Sosiale kategorisering blyk in albei skoolkontekste ’n realiteit te wees en wit leerders blyk in albei skole as die hoëstatusgroep geëvalueer te word. Uit die resultate blyk dit dat daar geen noemenswaardige verband tussen die wit deelnemers se EI en hulle identiteitsonderhandeling binne ’n swart skoolkonteks bestaan nie, terwyl dit blyk of daar ’n geringe verband tussen die swart deelnemers se EI en hulle identiteitsonderhandeling binne ’n wit skoolkonteks bestaan. Daar blyk egter ’n sterk verband tussen deelnemers se EI en hulle aanpassing en funksionering binne hul meerderheidskoolkontekste te bestaan. Die volgende addisionele faktore (wat nie op EI betrekking het nie) wat moontlik ’n rol in die aanpassing en funksionering van rasseminderheidsgroepe in meerderheidskoolkontekste kan speel, is ook geïdentifiseer: huislike omstandighede, geloof, prestasie op sport en/of kulturele gebied en die ondersteuning van een of meer ouers. Copyright / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Educational Psychology / unrestricted

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