<p>Series compensation of transmission lines is an effectiveand cheap method of improving the power transmission systemperformance. Series capacitors virtually reduces the length ofthe line making it easier to keep all parts of the power systemrunning in synchronism and to maintain a constant voltage levelthroughout the system. In Sweden this technology has been inuse since almost 50 years.</p><p>The possibility to improve the performance of the ACtransmission system utilizing power electronic equipment hasbeen discussed a lot since about ten years. Some newsemiconductor based concepts have been developed beside thesince long established HVDC and SVC technologies. The ThyristorControlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) is one such concept. Byvarying the inserted reactance an immediate and well-definedimpact on the active power flow in the transmission line isobtained. Several potential applications, specifically poweroscillation damping, benefit from this capability. The conceptimplied the requirement to design a semiconductor valve, whichcan be inserted directly in the high-voltage power circuit.This certainly presented a technical challenge but thestraightforward approach appeared to be a cost-effectivealternative with small losses.</p><p>It was also realized that the TCSC exhibits quite differentbehaviour with respect to subsynchronous frequency componentsin the line current as compared to the fixed series capacitorbank. This was a very interesting aspect as the risk ofsubsynchronous resonance (SSR), which just involves such linecurrent components, has hampered the use of series compensationin power systems using thermal generating plants.</p><p>The thesis deals with the modelling and control aspects ofTCSC. A simplifying concept, the equivalent, instantaneousvoltage reversal, is introduced to represent the action of thethyristor controlled inductive branch, which is connected inparallel with the series capacitor bank in the TCSC. The idealvoltage reversal is used in the thesis in order to describe andexplain the TCSC dynamics, to investigate its apparentimpedance at various frequencies, as a platform forsynthesizing the boost control system and as the base elementin deriving a linear, small-signal dynamical model of thethree-phase TCSC. Quantitative Feedback Theory (QFT) then hasbeen applied to the TCSC model in order to tune its boostregulator taking into account the typical variation ofparameters that exists in a power system. The impact of theboost control system with respect to damping of SSR is finallybeing briefly looked at.</p><p><b>Keywords:</b>Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor, TCSC,FACTS, reactive power compensation, boost control, phasorestimation, Quantitative Feedback Theory, subsynchronousresonance, SSR.</p>

Η διατριβή αυτή επικεντρώθηκε στη μείωση της αέργου ισχύος και των απωλειών σε συστήματα μετατροπής ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας, τα οποία περιέχουν ηλεκτρονικούς μετατροπείς ισχύος. Ως γνωστόν, συνήθως, όταν χρησιμοποιούνται ελεγχόμενοι μετατροπείς ισχύος για τον έλεγχο ηλεκτρικών και ηλεκτρομηχανικών μεγεθών, επέρχεται μείωση του συντελεστή ισχύος και του βαθμού απόδοσης. Για να επιτευχθεί υψηλός συντελεστής ισχύος, συνήθως, χρησιμοποιούνται τεχνικές παλμοδότησης των ημιαγωγικών στοιχείων του εκάστοτε μετατροπέα, οι οποίες λειτουργούν με υψηλή διακοπτική συχνότητα. Μ’ αυτό τον τρόπο μειώνεται η άεργος ισχύς, με αποτέλεσμα να μειώνεται και το συνολικό ρεύμα που ρέει από το δίκτυο παροχής της ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Με τον τρόπο αυτό μειώνονται οι απώλειες του δικτύου, αλλά αυξάνονται οι απώλειες του ηλεκτρονικού μετατροπέα ισχύος. Στην εργασία αυτή μελετάται εκτενώς η επίδραση της διακοπτικής συχνότητας επί του συνολικού συντελεστή ισχύος και επί του βαθμού απόδοσης. Προσδιορίζεται η διακοπτική συχνότητα, για την οποία επιτυγχάνεται ο υψηλότερος δυνατός συντελεστής ισχύος και βαθμός απόδοσης. Αυτή η συχνότητα εξαρτάται άμεσα από το παθητικό φίλτρο ανώτερων αρμονικών, που συνήθως είναι τοποθετημένο στην είσοδο του ηλεκτρονικού μετατροπέα ισχύος. Η διερεύνηση για την εύρεση της διακοπτικής συχνότητας για την οποία ο συντελεστής ισχύος και ο βαθμός απόδοσης αποκτούν τη μέγιστη δυνατή τιμή, πραγματοποιείται για ένα μονοφασικό μετατροπέα εναλλασσόμενης τάσης σε συνεχή με διπλή κατεύθυνση ρεύματος. Στις περισσότερες εφαρμογές, στις οποίες υπάρχει ένα δίκτυο εναλλασσόμενης τάσης, λόγω της φύσεως των φορτίων δημιουργείται καθυστέρηση του ρεύματος ως προς την τάση του δικτύου αυτού. Ένα από τα σημαντικά θέματα που πραγματεύεται η παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή είναι η αναίρεση αυτής της καθυστέρησης μέσω κατάλληλης έναυσης των ημιαγωγικών στοιχείων του μετατροπέα. Η καταλληλότητα αυτής της τεχνικής παλμοδότησης εξετάζεται τόσο για την περίπτωση ενός μετατροπέα εναλλασσόμενης τάσης (Ε.Τ.) σε συνεχή τάση (Σ.Τ.), όσο και για έναν ελεγχόμενο μετατροπέα εναλλασσόμενης τάσης σε εναλλασσόμενη σταθερής συχνότητας λειτουργίας. Κατά τον έλεγχο της λειτουργίας ορισμένων φορτίων μέσω ηλεκτρονικού μετατροπέα ισχύος εμφανίζονται ανώτερες αρμονικές στο ρεύμα του δικτύου με χαμηλές συχνότητες (π.χ. 150 Hz). Στη διατριβή αυτή μελετάται η μείωση αυτών μέσω της έγχυσης ανώτερων αρμονικών στο σήμα που αποτελεί τη βάση της δημιουργίας των παλμών έναυσης των ημιαγωγικών στοιχείων του μετατροπέα. Συγκεκριμένα, το πρώτο κεφάλαιο περιλαμβάνει την εισαγωγή και τους στόχους της διατριβής. Το δεύτερο κεφάλαιο περιλαμβάνει τους απαραίτητους ορισμούς βασικών ενεργειακών μεγεθών καθώς και τον προσδιορισμό των προβλημάτων, η λύση των οποίων αποτελεί το σκοπό της παρούσας διατριβής. Το τρίτο κεφάλαιο ασχολείται με τη σύγκριση των τυπικότερων ηλεκτρονικών μετατροπέων ισχύος τύπου μονοφασικής γέφυρας με κριτήρια το συντελεστή ισχύος και το βαθμό απόδοσης. Επίσης, προτείνεται η χρήση ενός ηλεκτρονικού μετατροπέα ισχύος Ε.Τ. σε Σ.Τ. διπλής κατεύθυνσης ρεύματος, ο οποίος πλεονεκτεί έναντι των συνήθως χρησιμοποιούμενων και μπορεί να θεωρηθεί κατάλληλος για εφαρμογές στα ηλεκτροκίνητα μέσα μεταφοράς για την αντιστροφή ισχύος π.χ. κατά την πέδηση αυτών. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο διερευνάται η τεχνική παλμοδότησης των ημιαγωγικών στοιχείων ενός μετατροπέα και προτείνεται εκείνη για την οποία ο συντελεστής ισχύος και ο βαθμός απόδοσης αποκτούν τις υψηλότερες δυνατές τιμές. Στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο προτείνεται μία μεθοδολογία, μέσω της οποίας καθορίζεται η τιμή των στοιχείων του παθητικού φίλτρου και της διακοπτικής συχνότητας, για την οποία ο συντελεστής ισχύος και ο βαθμός απόδοσης αποκτούν ταυτόχρονα τις μέγιστες δυνατές τιμές. Στο έκτο κεφάλαιο πραγματοποιείται πειραματική διερεύνηση επιβεβαιώνοντας έτσι τα αποτελέσματα που προέκυψαν από την προσομοίωση. Ο ηλεκτρονικός μετατροπέας ισχύος, τα τροφοδοτικά καθώς και οι επαγωγές των φίλτρων σχεδιάστηκαν και κατασκευάστηκαν στο Εργαστήριο Ηλεκτρομηχανικής Μετατροπής Ενέργειας στο πλαίσιο της εκπόνησης της παρούσας διατριβής. Στο έβδομο κεφάλαιο προτείνεται η χρήση μιας τεχνικής παλμοδότησης, με την οποία αναιρείται η καθυστέρηση της βασικής αρμονικής ως προς την τάση του δικτύου. Η τεχνική αυτή στην παρούσα διατριβή ονομάζεται α-sPWM. Με τη χρήση της μεθόδου αυτής βελτιώνεται ο συντελεστής ισχύος και ο βαθμός απόδοσης. Η μελέτη της εφαρμογής της τεχνικής παλμοδότησης α-sPWM πραγματοποιείται μέσω προσομοίωσης και μέσω πειραματικών μετρήσεων. Στο όγδοο κεφάλαιο μελετάται η αποτελεσματικότητα της προτεινόμενης τεχνικής παλμοδότησης σε ένα σύστημα, το οποίο αποτελείται από ένα διακοπτικό μετατροπέα εναλλασσόμενης τάσης σε εναλλασσόμενη τάση σταθερής συχνότητας λειτουργίας αλλά μεταβαλλόμενης ενεργού τιμής. Στο ένατο κεφάλαιο πραγματοποιείται πειραματική επιβεβαίωση των αποτελεσμάτων της προσομοίωσης για το προηγούμενο σύστημα, του οποίου ο ηλεκτρονικός μετατροπέας ισχύος σχεδιάστηκε και κατασκευάστηκε από τον υποψήφιο στο Εργαστήριο. Στο δέκατο κεφάλαιο προτείνεται μία μέθοδος έγχυσης ανώτερων αρμονικών στο ρεύμα της πηγής μέσω των παλμών έναυσης της τεχνικής παλμοδότησης α-sPWM για την αναίρεση των σημαντικότερων ανώτερων αρμονικών του ρεύματος αυτής. Αυτές οι αρμονικές είναι μικρά πολλαπλάσια της συχνότητας της πηγής και δεν είναι εύκολο να απορροφηθούν από το παθητικό φίλτρο στην πλευρά του δικτύου εναλλασσόμενης τάσης λόγω του μεγάλου μεγέθους των στοιχείων αυτού. Στη συνέχεια προτείνεται ένας τρόπος προσδιορισμού του πλάτους της εκάστοτε προς αναίρεση ανώτερης αρμονικής του ρεύματος, της οποίας η συχνότητα είναι γνωστή. Στο ενδέκατο κεφάλαιο διατυπώνονται τα συμπεράσματα και η συμβολή της διατριβής, στο δωδέκατο μία σύντομη περίληψη και στο δέκατο τρίτο παρατίθεται η βιβλιογραφία. Στο τέλος της διατριβής περικλείεται μία σύντομη περίληψη στα Αγγλικά. / This Ph.d. dissertation deals with the reactive power and power losses reduction. It is well known that the use of a power electronic converter to control the output electrical and electromechanical variables is the best choice. In this case the power electronic converter causes influences on the power efficiency and on the power factor. If the converter’s switching frequency is low (e.g. 50 Hz), the power efficiency is high but the power factor is significant low. On the contrary, by increasing the switching frequency of the semiconductor converter elements the power factor increases while the converter’s efficiency decreases. In this work a study of the switching frequency influence on the power factor and on the power efficiency is curried out. From the results we can determine a frequency by which both the efficiency and the power factor get optimal. This frequency depends on the converter’s input passive filter. For the investigation a controlled bidirectional AC-DC converter is used. Which enables the achieve of high power factor. Τhis work also deals with a switching technique to eliminate the phase angle between the grid’s voltage and the current basic harmonic. The idea is to remove this phase angle through the converter switching pulses. The effect of the proposed switching technique on the power factor and the power efficiency has been investigated for an AC-DC converter as well as for an AC-AC converter. Usually, to control a load through a power electronic converter some high order harmonics with low frequency are generated (e.g 150 Hz). It is well known that it is not easy to eliminate these high order harmonics. In the present work this is curried out through a current injection technique. The idea is to inject the required current harmonic through the converter switching pulses. In this thesis the studied issues were mainly realized through simulation (using the program Matlab/Simulink) as well as experimentally. For the experimental work the prototype converters and the electrical devises were designed and constructed in the laboratory.

Driven by economic, technical and environmental factors, the energy sector is currently undergoing a profound paradigm shift towards a smarter grid setup. Increased intake of Distributed and Renewable Generation (DG) units is one of the Smart Grid (SG) pillars that will lead to numerous advantages among which lower electricity losses, increased reliability and reduced greenhouse gas emissions are the most salient. The increase of DG units’ penetration will cause changes to the characteristics of distribution networks from being passive with unidirectional power flow towards Active Distribution Networks (ADNs) with multi-direction power flow. However, such changes in the current distribution systems structure and design will halt the seamless DG integration due to various technical issues that may arise. Voltage and reactive power control is one of the most significant issues that limit increasing DG penetration into distribution systems. On the other hand, the term microgrid has been created to be the building block of ADNs. A microgrid should be able to operate in two modes of operation, grid-connected or islanded. The successful implementation of the microgrid concept demands a proper definition of the regulations governing its integration in distribution systems. In order to define such regulations, an accurate evaluation of the benefits that microgrids will bring to customers and utilities is needed. Therefore, there is a need for careful consideration of microgrids in the assessment, operation, planning and design aspects of ADNs. Moreover, SG offers new digital technologies to be combined with the existing utility grids to substantially improve the overall efficiency and reliability of the network. Advanced network monitoring, two ways communication acts and intelligent control methods represent the main features of SG. Thus it is required to properly apply these features to facilitate a seamless integration of DG units in ADNs considering microgrids. Motivated by voltage and reactive power control issues in ADNs, the concept of microgrids, and SG technologies, three consequent stages are presented in this thesis. In the first stage, the issues of voltage and reactive power control in traditional distribution systems are addressed and assessed in order to shed the light on the potential conflicts that are expected with high DG penetration. A simple, yet efficient and generic three phase power flow algorithm is developed to facilitate the assessment. The results show that utility voltage and reactive power control devices can no longer use conventional control techniques and there is a necessity for the evolution of voltage and reactive power control from traditional to smart control schemes. Furthermore, a probabilistic approach for assessing the impacts of voltage and reactive power constraints on the probability of successful operation of islanded microgrids and its impacts on the anticipated improvement in the system and customer reliability indices is developed. The assessment approach takes into account: 1) the stochastic nature of DG units and loads variability, 2) the special philosophy of operation for islanded microgrids, 3) the different configurations of microgrids in ADNs, and 4) the microgrids dynamic stability. The results show that voltage and reactive power aspects cannot be excluded from the assessment of islanded microgrids successful operation. The assessment studies described in the first stage should be followed by new voltage and reactive power planning approaches that take into account the characteristics of ADNs and the successful operation of islanded microgrids. Feeders shunt capacitors are the main reactive power sources in distribution networks that are typically planned to be located or reallocated in order to provide voltage support and reduce the energy losses. Thus, in the second stage, the problem of capacitor planning in distribution network has been reformulated to consider microgrids in islanded mode. The genetic algorithm technique (GA) is utilized to solve the new formulation. The simulation results show that the new formulation for the problem of capacitor planning will facilitate a successful implementation of ADNs considering islanded microgrids. In the third stage, the SG technologies are applied to construct a two ways communication-based distributed control that has the capability to provide proper voltage and reactive power control in ADNs. The proposed control scheme is defined according to the concept of multiagent technology, where each voltage and reactive power control device or DG unit is considered as a control agent. An intelligent Belief-Desire-Intention (BDI) model is proposed for the interior structure of each control agent. The Foundation for Intelligent Physical Agents (FIPA) performatives are used as communication acts between the control agents. First, the distributed control scheme is applied for voltage regulation in distribution feeders at which load tap changer (LTC) or step voltage regulators are installed at the begging of the feeder. In this case, the proposed control aims to modify the local estimation of the line drop compensation circuit via communication. Second, the control scheme is modified to take into consideration the case of multiple feeders having a substation LTC and unbalanced load diversity. To verify the effectiveness and robustness of the proposed control structure, a multiagent simulation model is proposed. The simulation results show that distributed control structure has the capability to mitigate the interference between DG units and utility voltage and reactive power control devices.

This research work focuses on the reactive power compensation of the permanent magnet synchronous generator (PSG) in wind power plants. PSG feeds a fixed voltage dc grid through a rectifier bridge. In variable speed operation, the PSG will be able to build torque only in small speed range. This is due to the fixed magnet of the PSG. External reactive power compensation provides an attractive solution to overcome this problem. Different reactive power compensation configurations were examined. Statics synchronous series compensation and a shunt passive filter were chosen as a compensation method. Simulation and implementation of small wind power plant were performed. The wind power plant consists of the synchronous generator, inverter, rectifier, coupling transformers and shunt passive filter. The experimental results agree to the proposed theory and simulation results. / Der Schwerpunkt meiner Promotion ist die Blindleistungskompensation bei einem permanenterregten Synchrongenerator. Der Synchrongenerator speist das Gleichsspannungsnetz über ein Gleichrichter. In der Drehzahlvariablen Betriebsverhalten können Nachteile auftreten. Die Folge ist, dass bei konstanter Gleichspannung und fester Erregung durch die Permanenterregung nur ein sehr kleiner Drehzahlbereich mit vernünftiger Drehmomentausbeute bedienbar ist. Ein möglicher Ausweg wäre eine variable Kompensationsspannung. Verschiedene Kompensationsverfahren wurden untersucht. Ein Series Active Filter und ein Shunt Passive-Filter wurden als Blindleistungskompensation gewählt. Im Rahmen meiner Dissertation beschäftige ich mich mit dem Aufbau und der Simulation einer Windkraftanlage. Diese besteht aus einem permanenterregten Synchrongenerator, einem Wechselrichrter, einem Gleichrichter, drei Transformatoren und einem passiven Filter. Das Versuchsergebnis zeigt, dass die Theorie mit der Simulation übereinstimmt.

Detta examensarbete behandlar ett uppsamlingsnät för en ny vindkraftpark som planeras i norra Sverige av företaget AB.Parken skall bestå av 101 stycken vindkraftverk som skall förbindas samman med ett kabelnät och anslutas till en transformatorstation. Rapporten behandlar två förslag på hur nätet skall dimensioneras och förläggas. Uppdelningen av vindkraftverken i kluster illustreras av kartor och enlinjescheman.Valda förläggningsätt och dimensioneringar motiveras med kabelberäkningar och grundläggande teori gällande kabeldimensionering. Kabeltyp samt längder för båda förslagens samtliga radialer presenteras i tabeller tillsammans med en enklare kostnads jämförelse.Simuleringar för uppsamlingsnäten utförs i programmet Power World Simulator. För att kontrollera riktigheten i värdena från simuleringen utförs kontrollberäkningar på en radial med pi-modellen.Beräkningarna visar att dimensioneringen är utförd så förluster och spänningsökningar är väl inom gränsvärden för båda förslagen. Uppsamlingsnätets totala reaktiva tillskott är väl inom gränserna för vad vindkraftverken kan kompensera för.Förslag på fortsatt arbete för detta projekt vore att se över konstruktionen av transformatorstationen samt skydd för uppsamlingsnätet. / This report contains a suggestion for a projected wind farm in northern Sweden.The farm contains 101 wind turbines that shall be connected together with a collection grid and connected to a substation.The report contains two different suggestions of dimension and location of the cables for the grid. The turbines are divided into clusters and shown in maps and single line diagramsChosen suggestions and dimensions are reasoned with calculations and basic theory regarding cable sizing. The chosen cable types and lengths for both suggestions are shown in table form, together with a simplified cost comparison.After simulations have been run in power world simulator programme, the values was checked for authenticity with the π-circuit formula.The calculations shows that the selection of cables have accomplished low losses, and the increase of voltage is well within limits for both suggestions.The contribution of reactive power in the collection grid is also within the limits of what the wind turbines can compensate.A suggestion for future work on this project could be the design and dimension of the substation and the safety equipment.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The slip synchronous permanent magnet generator (SSG) is a direct-driven direct-grid connected generator developed to alleviate the need for expensive gearboxes and solid-state power converters on wind turbine generators. This study identifies certain key areas where the current wind turbine generator (WTG) system does not comply with the grid code for wind energy facilities (WEF) as specified by the National Energy Regulator of South Africa. The current WTG system does not have a reactive power compensation device. The main focus in this study is the development of an on-load tap changer (OLTC) transformer to control the terminal voltage of the generator. By controlling the terminal voltage of the generator the excitation-mode of the SSG can be changed allowing for control over the reactive power output of the SSG. An OLTC transformer utilising a solid-state assisted mechanical diverter circuit is built and tested to determine the viability of using an OLTC as a reactive power control device. Practical test results show that the OLTC can successfully control the terminal voltage of the SSG without interrupting the load current. The required accuracy regarding power factor control capability was not met due to the large change in reactive power output per tap change operation. A method of using small shunt capacitor banks to provide additional reactive power in between consecutive tap changes is evaluated in simulation. Simulation results show that the addition of these small shunt capacitor banks dramatically improves the reactive power control accuracy. Additionally the grid code specifies that a WEF must have the ability to curtail the active power output during frequency disturbances. The effects of frequency disturbances on the SSG output is simulated and it was found that the SSG will comply with the minimum connection requirements as specified in the grid code. A method of using an IGBT switched DC load to limit the active power output of the WEF is developed and simulated. From the simulation results it was found that the proposed active power curtailment device will meet the minimum power curtailment response time requirements as specified in the grid code. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die glip sinchroon permanente magneet generator (SSG) is ʼn direkte dryf, direkte netwerk gekoppelde wind generator wat ontwikkel is om behoefte aan duur ratkaste en drywing elektroniese omsetters te verlig. Hierdie studie identifiseer sekere sleutel areas waar die huidige wind generator opstelling nie aan die netwerk kode spesifikasie soos uiteengesit deur die Nasionale Energie Reguleerder van Suid-Afrika voldoen nie. Die wind turbine generator stelsel beskik nie oor ʼn reaktiewe drywing beheer meganisme nie. Die belangrikste fokus in hierdie studie is die ontwikkeling van ʼn transformator tap wisselaar wat gebruik sal word om die generator se terminale spanning te beheer. Deur die terminaal spanning te beheer kan die opwekking modus van die generator verander word om dan die uittree reaktiewe drywing te beheer. ʼn Tap wisselaar wat gebruik maak van ʼn drywingelektronies gesteunde meganiese skakelaar is ontwikkel en getoets om die lewensvatbaarheid van die tegniek te ondersoek. Praktiese toets resultate toon dat die tap wisselaar suksesvol beheer oor die generator se terminaal spanning kon uitvoer, sonder om die las-stroom te onderbreuk. Ongelukkig is die vereiste akkuraatheid ten opsigte van die reaktiewe drywing beheer nie gehaal nie. Die rede hiervoor is dat die verandering in uittree reaktiewe drywing baie groot is vir opeenvolgende tap verstellings. ʼn Metode waar twee klein kapasitor banke geskakel word om reaktiewe drywing te lewer, tussen opeenvolgende tap veranderinge, is deur middel van simulasie ondersoek. Die simulasie resultate toon aan dat die toevoeging van die kapasitors ʼn drastiese verbetering in die beheerbaarheid van die uittree reaktiewe drywing het. Verder spesifiseer die netwerk kode ook dat ʼn wind plaas oor die vermoë moet beskik om die aktiewe drywing te verminder tydens ʼn netwerk frekwensie versteuring. Die effek wat ʼn frekwensie versteuring op die SSG het, is deur middel van simulasie ondersoek en daar is gevind dat die SSG aan die netwerk verbinding spesifikasie sal voldoen. ʼn Metode waarby ʼn IGBT geskakelde GS las gebruik word om die aktiewe drywing van die wind generator te beperk is ondersoek en gesimuleer. Vanaf die simulasie resultate is daar gevind dat die drywing beperkings toestel aan die minimum drywing en reaksie tyd spesifikasies soos vereis sal voldoen.

Orientador: Leonardo Nepomuceno / Banca: Edilaine Martins Soler / Banca: Guilherme Guimarães Lage / Resumo: O problema de Fluxo de Potência Ótimo Reativo (FPOR) tem como objetivo otimizar um critério associado a potência reativa do sistema elétrico, levando em conta os limites físicos e técnicos-operacionais do mesmo. O problema de FPOR é formulado como um problema de programação não-linear com variáveis contínuas e discretas. Em muitos trabalhos da literatura, as variáveis discretas do problema de FPOR são consideradas como contínuas e a solução obtida é ajustada para o valor discreto mais próximo do conjunto de valores discretos pré-estabelecidos. Tal abordagem descaracteriza a representação real do problema associado ao sistema elétrico, além de resultar em soluções não ótimas ou até mesmo em soluções infactíveis. Este trabalho propõe uma abordagem de solução para tratar as variáveis discretas do problema de FPOR. Utiliza-se uma função penalidade senoidal que penaliza as variáveis discretas quando estas assumem valores que não pertencem ao conjunto discreto pré-estabelecido. A metodologia geral de solução proposta, utiliza métodos de pontos interiores e exteriores em conjunto com o método de penalidade para o tratamento das variáveis discretas. Mostra-se que a função penalidade senoidal introduz dificuldades para a convergência do método de pontos interiores e exteriores para pontos de mínimos. Para a correção deste problema, propõe-se uma estratégia de correção de inércia de modo a garantir a obtenção de mínimos locais do problema penalizado. O método de soluçã... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The Reactive Optimal Power Flow (FPOR) has the objective of optimizing a criterion associated with the reactive power if the electric system, taking into account the physical and technical-operational limits of the same. The FPOR problem is formulated as a nonlinear programming problem with continuous and discrete variables. In many works of the literature, the discrete variables of the FPOR problem are considered to be continuous and the solution obtained is adjusted to the nearest discrete value of the set of preset discrete values. Such an approach de-characterizes the actual representations of the problem associated with the electrical system, as well as resulting in non-optimal solutions or even infeasible solutions. This work proposes a solution approach to treat the discrete variables of the FPOR problem. A sinusoildal penalty function is used that penalizes the discrete variables when they assume values that do not belong to the pre-established discrete set. The proposed general solution methodology uses interior and exterior point methods in conjunction with the penalty method for the treatment of discrete variables. It is shown that the sinusoidal penalty function introduces difficulties for the convergence of the method to mininum points. In order to correct this problem, a strategy of correction of inertia is proposed in order to guarantee the obtaining of local minimum of the peanlized problem. The proposed solution method was implemented in Matlab and applied to IEEE 14,30, 57 and 118 buses. The results obtained evidenced the efficiency of the proposed approach / Mestre

Orientador: Jose Roberto Sanches Mantovani / Banca: Rubén Augusto Romero Lázaro / Banca: João Bosco Augusto London Junior / Resumo: Neste trabalho apresenta-se uma metodologia para resolver o problema de planejamento ótimo de reativos em sistemas de potência interconectados multi-áreas, utilizando a técnica de decomposição de Dantzig-Wolfe. O problema original multi-área é separado em subproblemas (um para cada área) e um problema mestre (coordenador). A solução do problema decomposto é baseada na aplicação de programação linear sucessiva para a resolução dos subproblemas de planejamento de reativos de cada área, e o esquema de coordenação é baseado nos custos marginais de potência reativa nas barras de fronteiras. Desta forma, o problema de planejamento do sistema é resolvido usando a estratégia descentralizada por regiões ou por áreas, onde os operadores dos sistemas podem planejar a opera- ção e a expansão de seus sistemas, independentemente das outras áreas, obtendo uma solução ótima coordenada, porém descentralizada de cada área. O objetivo do modelo é proporcionar mecanismos para realizar o planejamento preservando a autonomia e confidencialidade para cada área, garantindo a economia global do sistema multi-área completo. Utilizando-se o modelo matemático e a imple- mentação computacional da metodologia proposta, apresentam-se resultados, análises e discussões de testes efetuados em 3 sistemas de 3 áreas, onde cada uma das áreas é composta por 3 sistemas iguais formados pelos sistemas IEEE30, IEEE118 e IEEE300 / Abstract: In this thesis presents a methodology for solving the optimal reactive power planning problem in inter- conected multi-area electric power systems, using the Dantzig-Wolfe technique. The original multi- area problem is separated into subproblems (one for each area) and a master problem (coordinator). The solution of the decomposed problem is based on the application of sucessive linear programming for solving the reactive planning subproblems in each area, and the coordination scheme is based on the reactive power marginal costs in the border bus. Thus the planning problem system is solved using a descentralized approach by regions or areas, where de transmission system operator in each area can planning the operation and expansion of its system regardless of the other areas, obtaining a optimal solution coordinated by descentralized in each area. The purpose of the mathematical model is to provide mechanism for develope the planning preserving the autonomy and confidentiality for each area, ensuring the economy of the overal multi-area full system. Using the mathematical model and computational implementation of the methodology proposed results are presented analisys and discussion of testes performed on three systems in three areas where each area is composed of three equal systems formed by IEEE30, IEEE118, and IEEE300 bus system / Mestre

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:22:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2012-03-02Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:28:07Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 liberado_ev_me_bauru.pdf: 1524353 bytes, checksum: 5a5ec88c9ac35fcba41e0a65ff12ce49 (MD5) / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / As discussões recentes na área de condicionamento de energia elétrica têm como objetivo integrar as tecnologias de compensação convencionais às tendências do setor elétrico, às quais apontam para a distribuição da geração e do condicionamento de energia ao longo da rede, contribuindo para a configuração da chamada rede inteligente. Visando contribuir com tais discussões este trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento de uma metodologia de projeto e controle de sistemas de condicionamento de energia, nos quais diversas tecnologias de compensadores sejam capazes de operar cooperativamente. As definições matemáticas desta metodologia são embasadas na teoria de potência conservativa, uma modelagem matemática recente que associa características de circuitos elétricos à parcelas de corrente e potência. As tecnologias de compensadores utilizadas são os compensadores estáticos de reativos, filtros passivos e filtros ativos. Os compensadores projetados e controlados de acordo com a metodologia proposa foram testadas em simulação para atuar em redes com alta e baixa impedância de linha, na presença de cargas lineares e não lineares e em configurações fixas e variáveis ao longo do tempo de simulação. Em todos os casos, a compensação atenuou significativamente distúrbios de corrente relacionados com reativos, desequilíbrio e não linearidades entre tensões e correntes da carga. Uma rede com cargas distribuídas também foi simulada para avaliar a cooperação entre os compensadores, quando estavam conectados em diferentes pontos desta rede, bem como para discutir os possíveis critérios de projeto e controle da compensação distribuída / Recent discussions in power conditioning aim to integrate traditional compensation technologies to new trends in electrical system, which has been pointing to the characterization of the smart grid concept. In order to contribute to those discussions, this dissertation presents a methodology to design and control different technologies of power conditioners for cooperative compensation. The mathematical definitions used in the methodology came from conservative power theory, a recent mathematical modeling that offers power and current decompositions associated to some characteristics of electrical circuits. Thus, static var compensators, passive filters and active filters were designed according to the proposed methodology and tested in simulation with three-phase linear and loads connected to two typical grids, with and low line impedances. Results show effective compensation of reactive current, load unbalance and non linearities between voltage and current. Moreover, preliminary studies in distributed compensation are presented too, with simulations of a 13-node distribution grid based on IEEE 13-node test feeder, and the results of these simulations offer relevant considerations to extend the methodology to distributed compensators

No Brasil, quando uma unidade consumidora (UC) sob regime de microgeração ou de minigeração distribuída tem parte ou a totalidade da sua demanda por potência ativa suprida pela planta geradora, mas sua demanda por potência reativa é atendida exclusivamente pela rede elétrica, verifica-se uma aparente deterioração do fator de potência dessa UC, sob a ótica da concessionária. Esse efeito decorre do fato de que o fator de potência, de acordo com a regulamentação vigente, é determinado apenas a partir das medições dos fluxos de potência ativa e reativa trocados entre a UC e a rede elétrica e não também entre a planta geradora e UC. Para consumidores do Grupo A (tensão de fornecimento igual ou superior a 2,3 kV) nessa situação, de acordo com o perfil da carga, pode haver cobrança por excedentes de reativos, constituindo-se assim uma barreira. Especificamente no caso de sistemas fotovoltaicos conectados à rede, existe a possibilidade de se utilizar os próprios inversores c.c.-c.a para suprir a demanda de reativos da UC e, dessa forma, minimizar o problema apresentado. Com o objetivo de se avaliar essa alternativa no contexto brasileiro, tendo-se em vista condições reais de operação e os limites normativos de injeção de potência reativa para inversores de sistemas fotovoltaicos, foi realizado um estudo de caso de uma planta fotovoltaica instalada no telhado do prédio da Administração do Instituto de Energia e Ambiente da Universidade de São Paulo. O estudo mostrou que a compensação realizada por meio do inversor selecionado evitou a cobrança de excedentes de reativos sem afetar de forma significativa a produtividade do sistema fotovoltaico. Do ponto de vista elétrico, verificou-se que a injeção de reativos pelo inversor não provocou variações significativas de tensão no ponto de acoplamento ou no alimentador e, ainda, se verificou considerável liberação de capacidade do sistema supridor da concessionária. Dessa forma, a análise dos resultados indica uma tendência a se considerar a compensação de reativos proporcionada pelo próprio inversor a opção mais viável para se lidar com os excedentes de reativos, comparativamente a métodos convencionais de compensação ou à situação em que nenhuma ação compensatória seja implementada. / In Brazil, when a consumer unit (CU) under a distributed microgeneration or minigeneration scheme has part or all of its demand for active power supplied by the generating plant, but its demand for reactive power is served exclusively by the grid, the power factor of this CU appears deteriorated, from the perspective of the utility. This effect is due to the fact the power factor, according to the current regulations, is determined only from measurements of the flows of active and reactive power exchanged between the UC and the grid and not also between the generating plant and UC. Users of group A (supply voltage equal to or greater than 2.3 kV) in this situation, according to the CU load profile, may be charged due the reactive power excess, thus constituting a barrier. Specifically in the case of grid-connected photovoltaic systems, there is the possibility of using the d.c.- a.c. inverters to suply the CU reactive power demand and, thus, minimizing the presented problem. In order to evaluate this alternative in the Brazilian context, keeping in view real operating conditions and regulatory limits for the reactive power injection for photovoltaic inverters, we conducted a case study with a photovoltaic plant installed on the roof of the University of São Paulo Institute for Energy and Environment administration building. The study showed that the compensation performed by the selected inverter prevented the reactive power excess charging without affecting significantly the photovoltaic system productivity. From an electrical point of view, it was found that the injection of reactive power by the inverter did not cause significant voltage variations at the coupling point or at the transformer and, additionally, there was a significant release in the utility suply system capacity. Thus, the analysis results indicates a tendency to consider the compensation provided by the inverter itself the most viable option for dealing with the surplus of reactive power compared to conventional compensation methods or to the situation in which no compensatory action is implemented.