Two major developments dating from the 1970s - the rise of migration to the Gulf and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan – have led to a transformation of Pakhtun areas in Pakistan as well as in Afghanistan, bringing impacts on every aspect of the society, including the Pakhtun code of life, Pakhtunwali. The worsening security situation has led to a dearth of anthropological research in the Pakhtun regions in both countries. Most recent research relies on older outdated works and hence fails to take account of these momentous changes. For example, the dominant perspective still portrays Pakhtunwali mainly as a violent code involving revenge killings in feuds that are carried on for generations, which is no longer the case. My focus of study is a Pakhtun village in the Lower Dir district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. The village lies outside the tribal areas and the main source of income of the local people is remittances from the Gulf. The remittances have changed the village social structure and resulting in an increase in the number of landholders and an erosion of traditional social structure. Because of these changes Pakhtunwali has transformed, adjusting to the new socio-economic and religio-political set-up. Under these changed conditions, the complex of customary practises known as gham khadee (sorrows and joys) has emerged as the most salient feature of Pakhtunwali. Gham khadee refers to a number of practises ranging from participation in funerals and weddings to mutual favours among people in various matters of daily life. The tenets of Pakhtunwali, e.g. badal (revenge) , melmastya (hospitality), khegada (doing good), and tarburwali (cousin rivalry) are all performed within gham khadee occasions. However, the prominence of gham khadee does not mean that other tenets, e.g., violent badal, have completely ended; rather, the practise of violent badal has decreased. This thesis investigates the diverse and changing patterns of social relations among Pakhtuns, with particular attention to the ways in which social relations are guided by the practise of gham khadee. Given that political position among Pakhtuns is tied to honour, this thesis also investigates how gham khadee and the doing of favours help leaders build up their profile as well as create a political following. I take the prominence now given to gham khadee to be a manifestation of Pakhtunwali in the contemporary Pakhtun society living under the state’s laws.

In recent years, nonprofit scholars have increasingly studied the phenomenon of social enterprises which has become a generic term describing a wider reorientation among third sector organizations. The emergence of social enterprises has also led to a dynamic of hybridization and broadening in the cooperative sector, similar to an earlier dynamic of "economization", but this time on the other end of the organizational spectrum. This paper aims at developing a fine-grained conceptual understanding of how this organizational dynamic is shaped in terms of member coordination, thus contributing to a more comprehensive theoretical understanding of different organizational forms of cooperatives. Specifically, to highlight the difference to traditional member-focused cooperatives, the paper introduces the term third-party-focused cooperatives for those social enterprises which emphasize economic goals as well as control and ownership by a particular community (typically place-based). The key result of the paper is that with the shift from member- to community-focus in cooperatives, the main coordination mechanism becomes one of norm-based trust on the basis of generalized reciprocity. In contrast to traditional maxim-based trust member coordination on the basis of relation-specific reciprocity, this enables third-party-focused cooperatives to mobilize bridging and linking social capital, facilitating collective action aimed towards the community interest. The findings suggest that this identity shift requires a mutual re-positioning between the cooperative and the nonprofit sector, in terms of umbrellas as well as regulatory and legislative bodies.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss reciprocity and the role it plays in helping us understand interactions between parties in accounting settings. The concept of reciprocity states that individuals will reward kind behaviors and punish unkind behaviors. (Fisher et al. 2015; Fehr and Gächter 2000; Fehr and Gächter 1997). When trying to trace the origins of the theory of reciprocity, it is useful to track the initial constructs on which it is built from various literary sources. This process contributes to developing an understanding of how reciprocity is used to explain behaviors in the workplace. The notion of reciprocity has a long history and is defined in many iterations of social literature dating back to ancient philosophers. Roman politician Cicero, for example, stated: “there is no duty more indispensable than that of returning a kindness” and “all men distrust one forgetful of a benefit” (Gouldner 1960). This early philosophical sentiment exemplifies the integral role positive reciprocity plays in society and the potential avarice an individual may encounter when not returning positive actions with displays of positive reciprocity. Through this review, I gather literature that builds on the concept of reciprocity. I organize commonly found themes and organize settings previously used to focus on the multiple constructs to build upon reciprocity.

Modeling of radio wave propagation is indispensable for the design and analysis of wireless communication systems. The use of the Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method for wireless channel modeling has gained significant popularity due its ability to extract wideband responses from a single simulation. FDTD-based techniques, despite providing accurate channel characterizations, have often employed point sources in their studies, mainly due to the large amounts of resources required for modeling fine geometrical details or features inherent in antennas into a discrete spatial domain. The underlying influences of the antenna on wave propagation have thus been disregarded. This work presents a possible approach for the efficient space-time analysis of antennas by deducing FDTD-compatible macromodels that completely encapsulate the electromagnetic behaviour of antennas and then incorporating them into a standard FDTD formulation for modeling their interactions with a general environment.

Modeling of radio wave propagation is indispensable for the design and analysis of wireless communication systems. The use of the Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method for wireless channel modeling has gained significant popularity due its ability to extract wideband responses from a single simulation. FDTD-based techniques, despite providing accurate channel characterizations, have often employed point sources in their studies, mainly due to the large amounts of resources required for modeling fine geometrical details or features inherent in antennas into a discrete spatial domain. The underlying influences of the antenna on wave propagation have thus been disregarded. This work presents a possible approach for the efficient space-time analysis of antennas by deducing FDTD-compatible macromodels that completely encapsulate the electromagnetic behaviour of antennas and then incorporating them into a standard FDTD formulation for modeling their interactions with a general environment.

Aquesta tesi analitza diversos aspectes de les motivacions individuals i de les seves implicacions en processos econòmics. Específicament, analitzo en detall criteris normatius que poden aplicar els individus com són els de justícia i reciprocitat. En la Introducció defineixo l'ús que en faig de conceptes com la reciprocitat, la justícia, la "dependència del menú" i els "punts de referència" donat que s'empren en el desenvolupament dels diferents capítols. També es descriu la metodologia emprada, que consisteix en alguns models teòrics sobre el comportament dels individus en situacions estratègiques, incorporant elements de la Teoria dels Jocs i l'ús de la metodologia experimental. En el segon capítol, " El concepte de justícia de Rabin i la provisió privada de béns públics", analitzo en detall les implicacions de la teoria de Rabin (1993) sobre el comportament estratègic d'individus. Aquest model introdueix en la funció d'utilitat , a més dels pagaments econòmics que un individu obté, aspectes psicològics com el sentit de justícia en les relacions econòmiques amb altres individus. En aquest capítol examino les implicacions d'una extensió de la teoria a un camp a on existeix una acumulació de resultats experimentals en contradicció amb el comportament predit pels models estàndard de la teoria dels jocs. Mostro que la teoria d'en Rabin és consistent amb el que s'anomena "splitting" però inconsistent amb el que es coneix com a "efecte MPCR". El tercer capítol, "Punts de referència i reciprocitat negativa en jocs seqüencials simples", analitza la influència que poden tenir certs vectors de pagaments no disponibles en un moment de decisió, anomenats "punts de referència", sobre la preferència per un altre conjunt de vectors de pagaments. Això es connecta amb l'atribució de certes intencions a altres subjectes quan trien determinats cursos d'acció en el joc. Mitjançant la utilització d'experiments s'obtenen resultats que confirmen la importància dels punts de referència en les consideracions de reciprocitat que empren els individus. El quart capítol, " Aspectes distribucionals i els punts de referència", analitza alguns aspectes que poden combinar-se amb els punts de referència en la atribució d'intencions. Aquests aspectes són: el pagament que podia rebre un agent en el punt de referència, el seu pagament relatiu a l'altre agent i, finalment, el pagament conjunt que podien obtenir els dos agents en el punt de referència. Els resultats experimentals obtinguts mostren que cap d'aquests efectes pot explicar per ell mateix els resultats. Finalment, el cinquè capítol, " Els joc del dilema dels presoners en forma seqüencial: Reciprocitat i efectes de dimensió del grup" estudia les reaccions dels individus a certes decisions d'altres individus del procés i els canvis d'aquestes reaccions amb la dimensió del grup. Els resultats experimentals obtinguts , mostren que el comportament observat és consistent amb consideracions de reciprocitat i d'aversió a la desigualtat. / This thesis analyzes several aspects of the motivations that drive individuals and their implications in economic processes. In particular, I analyze in detail normative criteria that individuals apply such as those of fairness and reciprocity. In the Introduction I define the use I make of the concepts of reciprocity, fairness, menu dependence and reference points that will be used in the course of the different chapters. The methodology developed in this thesis employs some theoretical models on the behavior of individuals in strategic interactions, using elements of Game Theory and Experimental Economics. In the second chapter, "On Rabin's Concept of Fairness and the Private Provision of Public Goods", I analyze in detail the implications of Rabin's (1993) theory of individual behavior and its implications. This model introduces, apart from the economic payoffs that the individual obtains in a strategic interaction, psychological phenomena, mainly a sense of fairness in the relation with other agents. In this chapter I analyze the implications of an extended version of this theory to a field where there exists a vast amount of experimental evidences contradicting the behavior predicted by standard game theoretical models. I show that Rabin's theory is consistent with one piece of evidence repeatedly found in experiments, the so call "splitting". I also show that the model is inconsistent with another piece of evidence in the field, the "MPCR effect". The third chapter, "Reference Points and Negative Reciprocity in Simple Sequential Games", analyzes the influence that certain payoff vectors, the "reference points", not attainable at that time, may have on the preference by other payoff vectors. This is connected with the attribution of certain intentions to the other players when selecting some courses of action. By using experiments I obtain results that confirm the importance of these reference points in the reciprocity considerations that individuals apply. Chapter four , "Distributional Concerns and Reference Points", analyzes some aspects that may interact with the reference points in the attributions of intentions. These aspects are the payoff to the agent from a given course of action, his/her relative payoff and the joint payoff. The experimental results show that none of these elements is able to explain by itself the results. Finally, the fifth chapter, "The Sequential Prisoner's Dilemma Game: Reciprocity and Group Size Effects" analyzes how aspects of the individual motivations interact with social aspects. In particular it studies how the reactions of individuals change with the dimension of the group in certain processes. The experimental results obtained show that in the prisoner's dilemma game (two-person and three-person games) the behavior of subjects may be consistent with reciprocity considerations and with inequality aversion considerations.

Extant literature has a controversy over the effects of customer relationship on customer responses to service failure. Buffering perspective suggests that strong relationship can mitigate customers¡¦ unfavorable reactions to service failure; whereas amplifying perspective finds that these negative customer responses are enhanced by strong relationship. Until now, it still lacks a unified framework to explain the mechanisms under each perspective and to reconcile both perspectives. The motivation of this research is to fill up this research gap and to solve the controversy over the effects of customer relationship under service failures. By integrating interdependence theory and reciprocity theory, this research proposes a framework to analyze when and why each of buffering and amplifying effects would occur and how amplifying effects can shift to buffering effects. The major conjectures of the framework proposed by this research are that customer relationship has amplifying effects on customers¡¦ immediate responses while it has buffering effects on their prolonged responses; moreover, customers¡¦ immediate and prolonged responses are guided by different reciprocity motivations and the shift from amplifying effects to buffering effects is triggered by motivation transformation that can be enhanced by increasing a number of customers¡¦ social concerns. This framework is verified through one survey study and two experimental studies. Collectively, the results broadly support that: (a) a customer relationship has amplifying effects on customers¡¦ immediate responses while has buffering effects on their prolonged responses; (b) immediate responses are majorly governed by self-oriented motivations in reciprocation of the firms¡¦ past behavior, whereas to some extent prolonged responses are guided by relationship-oriented motivations in reciprocation of the firms¡¦ anticipated behavior; (c) transformation of reciprocity motivations triggers the shift from amplifying effects into buffering effects; (d) concern about future of relationship with the firm increases the possibility of transformation and thus the occurrence of buffering effects.

Why do people cooperate? Why does not every individuals in their groups choose to be a free-rider all the time? Based on two series of experiments, the author finds that reciprocity and punishment contribute to cooperation. When a group allows positive reciprocity where people can choose to cooperate, positive reciprocity facilitates cooperation. When reciprocity between group members turns to negative, however, group members make little contribution to the group and start to retaliate against their partners. Once punishment is incorporated into the experiment, people¡¦s behavior of cooperation varies. In the high positive reciprocity environment where punishment is used, people, as expected, continue to give more of their resources to their group. But it is worth noting that negative reciprocity did not get worse if punishment is used in group dynamics.

The initial intention of this arts-informed research study was to implement art classes for people with Alzheimer‟s disease, and to examine its impact upon new learning at cognitive, procedural and affective levels of experience. While these goals persist – indeed adult educational theory and quality of life are central to this thesis – the research focus gradually shifted from a constructivist view of the Alzheimer‟s learner to a phenomenological view of the relationship between teacher and student. Its power to facilitate the growth of reciprocity and bolster identity within the learning context, whether one-to-one or in small group settings, became more apparent as the research progressed. This revealed the potential of arts-based educational programs to build mutual trust and reciprocity with and among the participants. In turn, these qualities contributed to the expression of positive feelings, improved self-esteem,and communication in people with Alzheimer‟s.

The initial intention of this arts-informed research study was to implement art classes for people with Alzheimer‟s disease, and to examine its impact upon new learning at cognitive, procedural and affective levels of experience. While these goals persist – indeed adult educational theory and quality of life are central to this thesis – the research focus gradually shifted from a constructivist view of the Alzheimer‟s learner to a phenomenological view of the relationship between teacher and student. Its power to facilitate the growth of reciprocity and bolster identity within the learning context, whether one-to-one or in small group settings, became more apparent as the research progressed. This revealed the potential of arts-based educational programs to build mutual trust and reciprocity with and among the participants. In turn, these qualities contributed to the expression of positive feelings, improved self-esteem,and communication in people with Alzheimer‟s.