This thesis describes a method of determining the recombination rate coefficient experimentally, which does not depend on a specific model of the recombination process. With this method established, results are presented for the recombination rate coefficient measurements at 44.6 Torr.

Abstract The evolution of sociality is often associated with close relatedness and genetic similarity of interacting individuals. However, colonies of advanced social insects (e.g. ants, bees and wasps) characterized by large colony size and division of tasks, are also shaped by acquisition of genetic diversity by polyandry, polygyny, recombination and even by hybridization. The balance between forces selecting for high relatedness on one hand and for improved colony performance though increased genetic diversity on the other hand forms an intriguing area of research. My study has produced the first genetic linkage maps for ants (Acromyrmex echinatior and Pogonomyrmex rugosus) and social wasps (Vespula vulgaris). Together with the findings of earlier honeybee research, it is shown that advanced eusocial insects have higher recombination rates than any other insect (or animal) studied so far. The estimates obtained here were 14 cM/Mb for P. rugosus, 9.7 cM/Mb for V. vulgaris and 6.2 cM/Mb for A. echinatior. Pogonomyrmex harvester ants have a genetic caste determination system in which workers arise from mating between two hybridizing lineages whereas sexuals are produced by within-lineage mating. I evaluated the origin of the lineages and the caste determination system by using 751 variable nuclear genetic markers. Fertile hybrids would lead to introgression, particularly in genomic regions characterized by a high recombination rate and lack of strongly selected loci. The hybridizing lineages (lineage pairs J1/J2 and H1/H2) showed many fixed differences. Nineteen of them were in the constructed linkage map, scattered in different linkage groups. The results suggest that there has been no recent introgression. As the hybrids are viable (as workers), caste differentiation can be affected by many loci scattered throughout the ant genome or by a small number of very strongly selected loci. Genetic diversity in colonies of the ant Formica cinerea is affected by varying levels of polygyny. I tested the hypotheses that the prevalence of endosymbiotic bacteria can vary in polygynous colonies but be either very low or very high in monogynous colonies. However, I found no association between the level of polygyny and endosymbiont prevalence. In addition to Wolbachia, I found two other endosymbiotic bacteria Cardinium and Candidatus Serratia symbiotica which have not been earlier reported from ants. Genetic diversity in insect colonies is affected by polyandry and polygyny. My results indicate that high a recombination rate is also an important factor influencing diversity. Genotypically diverse progenies can enhance colony success, e.g. through effects on division of labour or defence against pathogens. Recombination differs from the other factors in its effects on genetic relatedness among colony members.

Meiotic recombination is both a fundamental biological process required for proper chromosomal segregation during meiosis and a fundamental genomic parameter that shapes major features of the genomic landscape. While there is strong evidence of fitness costs of low rates of recombination, the possible fitness costs of high rates of recombination are less defined. To determine whether a single lower fitness bound can explain the variation in recombination rate observed in human populations, we simulated the evolution of recombination rate as a quantitative trait using empirically-derived parameters. For our fitness function, we implemented a hyperbolic tangent curve with flexible parameters to capture a wide range of existing hypotheses. We found that both a lower and upper bound are necessary to explain the observed variation in recombination rate, and we describe a parameter space for an upper bound on recombination rate that produces results consistent with empirical observations.

Sex chromosomes and autosomes often differ in their relative rates of evolution, with sex chromosomes generally accumulating changes more rapidly (faster-X evolution). Transposable elements (TEs) make up a significant portion of eukaryotic genomes and are some of the most rapidly evolving genetic elements. We compared relative rates of insertion on the X and autosomes for 78 families found in Drosophila melanogaster. The average X/A ratio for these TE families was 1.11, similar to the mean dS X/A ratio, indicating no male-bias in mutation rate or TE insertion. The major mode of the distribution was ~0.8, indicating stronger purifying selection on the X chromosome for most TEs. We found no effect on X/A from sex-specific TE expression, but TEs with male-specific piRNA had an average X/A ratio of 0.62. We also found that TEs with very high X/A ratios (top 5%) had X chromosome insertions in areas of relative low recombination.

Background: Mutator-like transposable elements, a class of DNA transposons, exist pervasively in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes, with more than 10,000 copies identified in the rice genome. These elements can capture ectopic genomic sequences that lead to the formation of new gene structures. Here, based on whole-genome comparative analyses, we comprehensively investigated processes and mechanisms of the evolution of putative genes derived from Mutator-like transposable elements in ten Oryza species and the outgroup Leersia perieri, bridging similar to 20 million years of evolutionary history. Results: Our analysis identified thousands of putative genes in each of the Oryza species, a large proportion of which have evidence of expression and contain chimeric structures. Consistent with previous reports, we observe that the putative Mutator-like transposable element-derived genes are generally GC-rich and mainly derive from GC-rich parental sequences. Furthermore, we determine that Mutator-like transposable elements capture parental sequences preferentially from genomic regions with low methylation levels and high recombination rates. We explicitly show that methylation levels in the internal and terminated inverted repeat regions of these elements, which might be directed by the 24-nucleotide small RNA-mediated pathway, are different and change dynamically over evolutionary time. Lastly, we demonstrate that putative genes derived from Mutator-like transposable elements tend to be expressed in mature pollen, which have undergone de-methylation programming, thereby providing a permissive expression environment for newly formed/transposable element-derived genes. Conclusions: Our results suggest that DNA methylation may be a primary mechanism to facilitate the origination, survival, and regulation of genes derived from Mutator-like transposable elements, thus contributing to the evolution of gene innovation and novelty in plant genomes.

La recombinaison génétique est un processus biologique fondamental, ayant lieu au cours de la méiose et assurant la bonne ségrégation des chromosomes, ainsi que le maintien de la variabilité génétique grâce au brassage intrachromosomique. La recombinaison a été étudiée dans de nombreuses espèces, en particulier chez les Mammifères et les animaux d’élevage, comme les bovins, les porcs ou les ovins. Dans tous les cas, une variation du taux de recombinaison a été observée entre les individus et il a été démontré qu’elle était héritable et sous déterminisme génétique. Dans certaines espèces, des cartes génétiques ont également été construites, ce qui a permis de localiser les crossingovers et de détecter de très petites zones du génome où la recombinaison était importante : les points chauds. En race ovine Lacaune, de nombreuses données de génotypages sont disponibles, notamment grâce à l’existence de deux puces : une de moyenne densité avec 54 000 marqueurs et une de haute densité avec 600 000 marqueurs. Deux jeux de données étaient donc disponibles ; un jeu de données familial avec près de 6 000 individus apparentés et génotypés pour les 54 000 marqueurs et un jeu de données comportant 70 Lacaune non apparentés et génotypés pour les 600 000 marqueurs. Des cartes génétiques ont donc été créées pour ces deux jeux de données. Avec les animaux non apparentés, environ 50 000 points chauds ont été détectés. Le jeu de données familial a permis d’observer des motifs de distribution de la recombinaison communs aux autres Mammifères. Enfin, la combinaison des deux jeux de données a révélé la présence de signatures de sélection et a permis de créer une carte génétique de haute densité. De plus, une variation du taux de recombinaison a été observée entre les individus et a pu être liée à l’existence de 2 QTLs majeurs sur les chromosomes 6 et 7. Des gènes candidats plus ou moins bien connus ont pu être proposés, voire étudiés : RNF212 et HEI10. De plus, une comparaison avec une autre population ovine a permis de montrer que les cartes de recombinaison étaient quasiment identiques, mais que le taux de recombinaison individuel était soumis à un déterminisme génétique différent. Il a également été possible de proposer une application concrète pour l’utilisation des cartes génétiques en sélection génomique, grâce à la création de puces basse densité pouvant être utilisées pour l’imputation des reproducteurs et donc favoriser le génotypage et la sélection génomique à moindre coût. / Genetic recombination is a fundamental biological process, which occurs during the meiosis. It allows the good segregation of the chromosomes and contributes to maintain the genetic diversity. Recombination was already studied in a lot of different species, especially in mammals and in farm animals, such as the pig, the cattle or the sheep. In each case, a variation of the recombination rate between the individuals was observed. This variation was heritable and under genetic determinism. In some species, genetic recombination maps were also created, which allowed to localize the crossovers and to detect really tiny genomic regions where the recombination is huge: the recombination hotspots. In the Lacaune breed sheep, a lot of genotyping data are available thanks to two existing arrays: a first with a medium density of markers (about 54,000 markers) and a second with a high density of markers (about 600,000 markers). Two datasets were thus available: a familial dataset with about 6,000 animals genotyped for the 54,000 markers and a dataset of 70 unrelated Lacaune genotyped for the 600,000 markers. Genetic recombination maps were created for these two datasets. With the 70 unrelated Lacaune, about 50,000 hotspots were detected. The familial dataset allowed to observe the mammals common recombination patterns. Finally, when the two datasets were combined, selection signatures were revealed and a high density recombination map were created. Furthermore, a variation of the recombination rate within the individuals was observed and was associated to 2 main QTLs on the chromosomes 6 and 7. Already known, or not, candidate genes were proposed and sometimes studied: especially RNF212 and HEI10. Finally, a comparison with another sheep breed revealed that the genetic recombination maps were really similar, but the individual recombination rate was under a different genetic determinism. A concrete application of the genetic recombination map in genomic selection was also proposed thanks to the creation of lowdensity SNPs sets, which could be used to impute the animals and thus to improve the genotyping and the genomic selection for lessercosts.

The interactions of electrons with ions and ions with neutrals are among the most important processes in the chemical evolution of molecules, allowing us to gain a deeper understanding of chemical processes in low-temperature environments in space such as interstellar gas clouds and to obtain feedback for quantum-mechanical calculations. Vari- ous plasma parameters such as kinetic and rotational temperature of ions, their concen- tration, etc. can vary by several orders of magnitude and different diagnostic techniques are used to determine them. Diagnostics such as SA-CRDS and Cryo-CRDS were used in this work. The subject of the study were two molecular ions: N2H+ and N+ 2 from the temperature range of 80-350 K, where we examined their recombination and absorption rate coefficients utilizing the absorption line involving the most populated states. 1

No description available.

Le génome de la levure de boulanger Saccharomyces cerevisiae a évolué à partir d'un ancêtre chez lequel une profonde décompaction du génome s'est produite à la suite de la perte de la méthylation de la lysine 9 de l'histone H3, il y a environ 300 millions d'années. Il a été proposé que cette décompaction du génome a entraîné une capacité accrue des levures à évoluer par des mécanismes impliquant des taux de recombinaison méiotique et de mutation exceptionnellement élevés. La capacité à évoluer accrue qui en résulte pourrait avoir permis des adaptations uniques, qui en ont fait un eucaryote modèle idéal et un outil biotechnologique. Dans cette thèse, je présenterai deux exemples de la façon dont les adaptations locales et globales du génome se reflètent dans les changements des propriétés mécaniques de la chromatine qui, à leur tour, indiquent un phénomène de séparation de phase causée par les modifications post-traductionnelles des histones et des changements dans les taux d'échange des histones. Dans un premier manuscrit, je présente des preuves d'un mécanisme par lequel la relocalisation du locus INO1, gène actif répondant à la déplétion en inositol, du nucléoplasme vers l'enveloppe nucléaire, augmente la vitesse d'adaptation et la robustesse métabolique aux ressources fluctuantes, en augmentant le transport des ARNm vers le cytosol et leur traduction. La répartition d'INO1 vers l'enveloppe nucléaire est déterminée par une augmentation locale des taux d'échange d'histones, ce qui entraîne sa séparation de phase du nucléoplasme en une phase de faible densité plus proche de la périphérie nucléaire. J'ai quantifié les propriétés mécaniques de la chromatine du locus du gène dans les états réprimé et actif en analysant le déplacement de 128 sites LacO fusionnés au gène liant LacI-GFP en calculant diffèrent paramètres tel que la constante de ressort effective et le rayons de confinement du locus. De plus, j'ai mesuré l'amplitude et le taux d'expansion en fonction du temps du réseau LacO et j'ai observé une diminution significative du locus à l'état actif, ce qui est cohérent avec le comportement de ressort entropique de la chromatine décompactée. J'ai montré que les séquences d'éléments en cis dans le promoteur du locus, essentielles à la séparation de phase, sont des sites de liaison pour les complexes de remodelage de la chromatine effectuant l'acétylation des histones. Ces modifications de la chromatine entraînent une augmentation des taux d'échanges des sous-unités des complexes d'histones, et une séparation de phase locale de la chromatine. Enfin, je présente l’analyse de simulations in silico qui montrent que la séparation de phase locale de la chromatine peut être prédite à partir d'un modèle de formation/disruption des interactions multivalentes protéine-protéine et protéine-ADN qui entraîne une diminution de la dynamique de l'ADN. Ces résultats suggèrent un mécanisme général permettant de contrôler la formation rapide des domaines de la chromatine, bien que les processus spécifiques contribuant à la diminution de la dynamique de l'ADN restent à étudier. Dans un second manuscrit, je décris comment nous avons induit la « retro-évolution » de la levure en réintroduisant la méthylation de la lysine 9 de l'histone H3 par l'expression de deux gènes de la levure Schizosaccaromyces pombe Spswi6 et Spclr4. Le mutant résultant présente une augmentation de la compaction de la chromatine, ce qui entraîne une réduction remarquable des taux de mutation et de recombinaison. Ces résultats suggèrent que la perte de la méthylation de la lysine 9 de l'histone H3 pourrait avoir augmenté la capacité à l'évoluer. La stabilité inhabituelle du génome conférée par ces mutations pourrait être utile pour l'ingénierie métabolique de S. cerevisiae, dans laquelle il est difficile de maintenir des gènes exogènes intégrés pour les applications de nombreux processus biotechnologiques courants tels que la production de vin, de bière, de pain et de biocarburants. Ces résultats soulignent l'influence des propriétés physiques d'un génome sur son architecture et sa fonction globales. / The genome of the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae evolved from an ancestor in which a profound genome decompaction occurred as the result of the loss of histone H3 lysine 9 methylation, approximately 300 million years ago. This decompaction may have resulted in an increased capacity of yeasts to evolve by mechanisms that include unusually high meiotic recombination and mutation rates. Resultant increased evolvability may have enabled unique adaptations, which have made it an ideal model eukaryote and biotechnological tool. In this thesis I will present two examples of how local and global genome adaptations are reflected in changes in the mechanical properties of chromatin. In a first manuscript, I present evidence for a mechanism by which partitioning of the active inositol depletion-responsive gene locus INO1 from nucleoplasm to the nuclear envelope increases the speed of adaptation and metabolic robustness to fluctuating resources, by increasing mRNA transport to the cytosol and their translation. Partitioning of INO1 to the nuclear envelope is driven by a local increase in histone exchange rates, resulting in its phase separation from the nucleoplasm into a low-density phase closer to the nuclear periphery. I quantified the mechanical properties of the gene locus chromatin in repressed and active states by monitoring mean-squared displacement of an array of 128 LacO sites fused to the gene binding LacI-GFP and calculating effective spring constants and radii of confinement of the array. Furthermore, I measured amplitude and rate of time-dependent expansion of the LacO array, and observed a significant decrease for the active-state locus which is consistent with entropic spring behavior of decompacted chromatin. I showed that cis element sequences in the promoter and upstream of the locus that are essential to phase separation are binding sites for chromatin remodeling complexes that perform histone acetylation among other modifications that result in increased histone complex exchange rates, and consequent local chromatin phase separation. Finally, I present analytical simulations that show that local phase separation of chromatin can be predicted from a model of formation/disruption of multivalent protein-protein and protein-DNA interactions that results in decreased DNA dynamics. These results suggest a general mechanism to control rapid formation of chromatin domains, although the specific processes contributing to the decreased DNA dynamics remain to be investigated. In a second manuscript, I describe how we retro-evolutionarily engineered yeast by reintroducing histone H3 lysine 9 methylation through the expression of two genes from the yeast Schizosaccaromyces pombe Spswi6 and Spclr4. This mutant shows an increase in compaction, resulting in remarkable reduced mutation and recombination rates. These results suggest that loss of histone H3 lysine 9 methylation may have increased evolvability. The unusual genome stability imparted by these mutations could be of value to metabolically engineering S. cerevisiae, in which it is difficult to maintain integrated exogenous genes for applications for many common biotechnological processes such as wine, beer, bread, and biofuels production. These results highlight the influence of the physical properties of a genome on its overall architecture and function.