Waste minimisation is implemented worldwide and has become an urgent priority in South Africa as evidenced in the promulgated National Environmental Management Waste Act (2008). The most common waste disposal method in South Africa is by landfill, which is unacceptable. Local municipalities have made little progress towards waste minimisation. The aim of this study was to present a solution to waste minimisation for the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality (CTMM) by determining the feasibility of establishing composting facilities on landfill sites. One third of all municipal waste consists of green waste, which is compostable and can be converted on landfill sites. Nine municipal landfill sites were screened. The four most feasible sites were evaluated further by applying identified parameters that address physical, social and operational requirements. It is a possible to establish composting facilities on all four sites investigated, with Hatherley ranking as the most suited. The findings of this study clearly provided the basic parameters and requirements for constructing a composting facility and practical procedures applicable within a South African context. The evaluation method used can be applied as a model to evaluate similar studies in other municipalities to aid them in the decision-making process for waste minimisation. / Environmental Management / M.A. (Environmental Management)

Bibliographical refernces appear at the end of each chapter / This study reviews solid waste management practices in Polokwane City. The study area covered some of the residential areas in Polokwane City; namely; Ivy Park, Fauna Park, Welgelegen, Westernburg and the City Centre. This article describes two main methods that were used to collect data; that is Qualitative and Quantitative method. Field survey was also made to validate data obtained from the participants that were interviewed during qualitative data process. After framing the problem, the objectives of Solid Waste Management Practices in Polokwane City were briefly outlined as follows: • Assess solid waste management practices in Polokwane City. • Make comparison on how households and the municipality take responsibility in storing, collecting, transporting, treating and disposing solid waste. • Investigate what problems the City encounters in managing solid waste. • Make relevant recommendations aimed at improving solid waste management practices within the City. The service management was administered by the municipality and private sector. From the five study residential areas, the Municipality manages waste in the City Centre while the private sector manages waste in the other residential areas. However, the City continues to play an administrative role over the contracted service provider. Statistical results were presented in figures and tables. The results showed the storage habits, frequency of collection, mode of transport and methods of disposal for solid waste in Polokwane City. The only method of disposal in the city was found to be landfilling. Activities that took place at the landfill site, such as reclaiming were outlined together with the economic values that these activities add to the City. The study also revealed that as population increases, the amount of solid waste generated also increased. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

The economic and population growth have led to the increased volumes of municipal solid waste in South Africa, hence more pressure to the waste management facilities. Municipal solid waste management is a by-product of everyday living, this is the reason why there is an environmental burden caused by waste to the environment. This study was conducted in Pretoria within the three sampled areas, namely: Garsfontein, Marabastad and Pretoria Central Business District (CBD). The rationale of the study was to establish the influence and effects of biographic factors (age, marital status, educational background, gender) and religious conviction on littering. This project constitutes both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. About 150 of the questionnaires were administered to each of the three sampled areas. Therefore, the overall proportion of the respondents was 450. Visual inspection was done in all the three sampled areas to observe the littering status quo and waste management situation in these particular areas. The visual inspection uncovered very interesting findings. It was established that Marabastad was cleaner in the morning than in the late hours while Garsfontein was clean throughout the day. Another problem that was discovered, amongst others was that of the condition of the bins in Marabastad and Pretoria Central Business District (CBD) which was bad compared to Garsfontein. From the questionnaire, it was found that the 72% of elderly respondents (< 36 yrs) are more environmental conscious than the young people (18-35 yrs) who 83% of them claim to litter when there is no bin. Further, among young people, 78% said litter cigarette butts and 93% of these said better street cleanliness would help reduce littering. 72% of adults said religious convictions would help reduce littering. The chi-square and correlation coefficient statistical data analysis methods were used to establish the relationship between different biographic and religious variables. Gender, marital status, monthly income, age and religious conviction were all found to have significant effects on issues regarding littering in the city. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)

Based on literature review, statistics of waste management at ports in South Africa is hard to come by. The research critically assessed the current waste management practices at Transnet National Ports Authority. Transnet National Ports Authority, Port of Richards Bay (TNPA RCB) was used as a case study to examine the different types and quantities of waste produced, analysing the current waste management model as well as determining TNPA RCB compliance to pertinent waste legislation. A 10 day waste audit was conducted to obtain quantitative data and to identify the different types of waste generated. The baseline data resulting from the waste audit conducted for the first time since the establishment of the TNPA RCB, found 402 kg of general waste generated, 74 kg of this total is segregated for recycling and the remaining 328 kg is landfilled. The overall conclusion gained during compliance audit was that the TNPA RCB was partly compliant with pertinent waste legislation and obligations. Furthermore, questionnaires about waste were sent to staff members working in offices to get an overview of how they deal with current waste management. A number of barriers to sustainable waste management were identified, including: lack of knowledge and awareness; constraints on facilities and human resources; culture that resists change and contamination. To overcome these, there needs to be education, as well as co-operation between top management, staff and waste service providers to help implement new strategies. The primary conclusions from this dissertation are that there are opportunities to divert waste streams from landfill and to attain a sustainable waste management system at TNPA RCB. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

Text in English / The study focused on the characterisation and management of non-formal solid waste disposal sites in Harare, the capital city of the Republic of Zimbabwe. In many developing countries, increasing urbanisation surpasses the development of urban infrastructure and this has led to the proliferation of informal settlements, illegal dumping sites and uncontrolled vending in cities like Harare. The researcher investigated the prevalence of non-formal dumping sites in Harare, including the composition, locational attributes and internal linkages of solid waste. Practices regarding the management of non-formal solid waste disposal sites were examined and areas of good practice and conformity to international standards were complemented while recommendations and suggestions were made on areas that were found wanting. An integrated management system was recommended for the sustainable management of solid waste. To support this recommendation, management window of responsibilities (EMWR) model was created so that the Harare City Council can enhance stakeholder participation. The research results show that most residents used non-conventional ways to store waste, like mealie-meal bags and sacks, and this posed a danger to human health. It also emerged that the city of Harare has not updated some of its by-laws, some of which were enacted about 33 years ago while others remained drafts for decades. This made it difficult for the city to effectively implement them. / Environmental Sciences / M.Sc. (Environmental Management)

The broader aim of this study is to probe participation of learners in waste management activities in selected primary schools in Botswana and through these activities, explore opportunities for action competence development. The study starts by tracing and outlining the socio-ecological challenges that confront children and the historical background of learner-centred education which gave rise to an emphasis on learner participation in Botswana education policy. It then maps out the development of children's participation in the global, regional and Botswana contexts by tracing the development of environmental education from early ecological and issue resolution goals of environmental education to sustainable development discourses. The focus is on policy issues and how learner participation has been represented and implemented in environmental education. The study then probes the rhetorical and normalised emphases on participation, and seeks further insight into how learners can be engaged in participatory learning processes that are meaningful, purposeful and that broaden their action competence and civic agency. The study uses the Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) methodology to build a picture of waste management activity systems in primary schools and to bring to the surface contradictions and tensions in learner participation in these activity systems. These contradictions are used to open up expansive learning participatory processes with learners using the Danish action competence framework. The expansive learning process uses action competence models that provide potential for transformative participation with learners, and new and different opportunities for learner participation. Case study research was used and conducted in the south eastern region of Botswana in three primary schools in three contexts, namely urban, peri-urban and rural. The data was largely generated through focus group interviews during workshops with children and observations of waste management activities. These two methods formed the main data generation methods. They were complemented by semi-structured interviews with teachers, and other actors in the waste management activities, learners' activities and work, learners' notes, photographs and children's drawings as well as show-and-tell explanations by learners. Content analysis and the abductive mode of inference were used to analyse data in all three case studies. Findings from the first phase of the study reveal that participation of learners in waste management activities was largely teacher-directed. This resulted in a mis-match between teachers views of what practices are necessary and important, and children's views of what practices are necessary and important in and for environmental education. Due to culturally and historically formed views of environmental education, the study reveals that teachers wanted children to pick up litter, and this was their primary environmental education concern. Learners on the other hand, identified sanitation management in the school toilets as their primary waste management concern. Teachers had not considered this an environmental education concern. Using the action competence expansive learning approach, the second phase of the study addressed this tension by opening up dialogue between teachers and learners and amongst the learners themselves through an expansive learning process supporting children's participation and action competence development. Through this teacher-learner dialogical engagement, a broader range of possibilities became available and ideas around participation were radically changed. The study further reveals that the achievement of this open dialogue provided for a better relationship within the school community. And with improved communication came better ideas to solve waste management issues that the community still face on a daily basis, such as too much litter. Newly devised solutions were practical and had a broader impact than the initial ones that teachers had always focussed on. They included mobilising the maintenance of toilets, landscaping the school premises and even re-contextualising the litter management that had always caused tensions between learners and teachers. Children seemed to be developing not only a better understanding of the environment, but also developing the ability to resolve conflict amongst themselves and with their elders. By engaging in dialogue with children, they became co-catalysts for change in the school community. This study shows that if children's participation is taken seriously, and if opportunities for dialogue exist between teachers and children, positive changes for a healthier environment can be created in schools. It reveals that children also appeared to be feeling more confident and more equipped to consider changes in their environment outside of the school community. The study further shows that participation in environmental education involves more than cognitive changes as proposed in earlier constructivist literature; it includes in-depth engagement with socio-cultural dynamics and histories in the school context, such as the cultural histories of teachers, schooling and authority structures in the cultural community of the school. The study recommends that there is need to strengthen Teacher Education programmes to develop teaching practices and support for teachers to identify ways of engaging learners' views on issues in the school in open, dialogical ways. Such Teacher Education programmes should deepen teachers' understandings of learners' zone of proximal development (ZPD), demonstrating how dialogue and scaffolding are part of a teacher's role in supporting learning. This is shown in the three case studies that form part of this study. Finally, the study also deepens insights of using the Cultural Historical Activity theory (CHAT) to shed light on issues surrounding learner participation within the socio-cultural and historical environmental education contexts of the schools. The action competence models used in the study provide a tool for revealing forms of learner participation. This tool can be used for critical reflections and monitoring of teaching practices in schools.

Esta Tese desenvolveu um instrumento para avaliação de desempenho ambiental no gerenciamento de resíduos sólidos industriais. A verificação das práticas considera o transcurso do ciclo de vida do produto por meio de indicadores e índices tendo como parâmetros alicerçadores a Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos e conceitos afins, como a logística reversa, a Produção mais Limpa e o Ecodesign, além de normas da série ISO 14000 tais como Sistemas de Gestão Ambiental, Integração de aspectos ambientais no projeto e desenvolvimento de produtos, Rotulagem ambiental e Avaliação de Desempenho Ambiental. O objetivo central da Tese, que foi desenvolver um modelo para avaliação de desempenho ambiental, esta contido neste panorama, o qual recorreu aos recursos da modelagem fuzzy a fim de assessorar as organizações na tomada de decisões. A metodologia, de natureza qualitativa e quantitativa, embasou a construção do instrumento denominado Índice de Desempenho Ambiental da Gestão de Resíduos Sólidos Industriais (IDEA PNRS+L). Este se constitui de 26 indicadores e 23 índices, concebido na forma top-down soft decision tree. O cálculo dos índices, compostos de regras fuzzy, variáveis e suas inferências, incluiu a visão de um grupo de especialistas, em pesquisa de opinião, para ajustar os graus de influência das variáveis de cada índice. Nas simulações, testes e aplicação do instrumento em uma indústria para avaliar as suas potencialidades, o IDEA PNRS+L mostrou-se sensível, mesmo para pequenas variações dos dados de entrada, plausível e confiável, ao reproduzir o comportamento estabelecido em sua concepção. Os parâmetros alicerçadores que constituíram o corpo teórico, concluindo, foram assaz abrangentes e permitiram a construção do instrumento de avaliação de desempenho ambiental IDEA PNRS+L, considerado adequado para a arbitragem das organizações. Concomitantemente, foram recuperadas as normas, concepções de iniciativas governamentais e atitudes profissionais ambientalmente corretas apoiadas em conceitos vanguardistas de produtos e serviços. / This Thesis develops an instrument for evaluating environmental performance in management of industrial solid waste. The practices verification consider the industrial product life-cycle through indicators and indices based on the National Policy on Solid Waste parameters and related concepts such as reverse logistics, Cleaner Production and Ecodesign, and standards like ISO 14000 series such as environmental management systems, integrating environmental aspects in product design and development, environmental labels and Environmental Performance Evaluation. The central Thesis’ aim, that was to develop an environmental evaluating model, contains this panorama, which calls on a fuzzy modeling tool to assist organizations in making decisions. Two methodological research groups covered the dicussions and the instrument construction called Environmental Performance Index of Industrial Solid Waste Management (IDEA PNRS+L): qualitative and quantitative. This fuzzy modeling is composed of 26 indicators and 23 index, conceived in top- down soft decision tree form. The index calculation - composed of fuzzy rules, variables and their inferences - included a group of specialists respondents view, through a survey, to adjust the variables influence degrees of each index. In the simulations, testing and application of the created instrument in an industry to assess their potential, IDEA PNRS+L was sensitive even to small variations of the input data, plausible and reliable, to reproduce the behavior established in the initial configuration. Concluding, the fundamental parameters that formed the theoretical framework were quite comprehensive and allowed the construction of Environmental Performance Evaluation called IDEA PNRS+L, appropriated for industrial arbitration. Simultaneously, the rules, government initiatives concepts and accurated environmentally professional attitudes supported by avant-garde products and services concepts were recuperated.

Esta Tese desenvolveu um instrumento para avaliação de desempenho ambiental no gerenciamento de resíduos sólidos industriais. A verificação das práticas considera o transcurso do ciclo de vida do produto por meio de indicadores e índices tendo como parâmetros alicerçadores a Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos e conceitos afins, como a logística reversa, a Produção mais Limpa e o Ecodesign, além de normas da série ISO 14000 tais como Sistemas de Gestão Ambiental, Integração de aspectos ambientais no projeto e desenvolvimento de produtos, Rotulagem ambiental e Avaliação de Desempenho Ambiental. O objetivo central da Tese, que foi desenvolver um modelo para avaliação de desempenho ambiental, esta contido neste panorama, o qual recorreu aos recursos da modelagem fuzzy a fim de assessorar as organizações na tomada de decisões. A metodologia, de natureza qualitativa e quantitativa, embasou a construção do instrumento denominado Índice de Desempenho Ambiental da Gestão de Resíduos Sólidos Industriais (IDEA PNRS+L). Este se constitui de 26 indicadores e 23 índices, concebido na forma top-down soft decision tree. O cálculo dos índices, compostos de regras fuzzy, variáveis e suas inferências, incluiu a visão de um grupo de especialistas, em pesquisa de opinião, para ajustar os graus de influência das variáveis de cada índice. Nas simulações, testes e aplicação do instrumento em uma indústria para avaliar as suas potencialidades, o IDEA PNRS+L mostrou-se sensível, mesmo para pequenas variações dos dados de entrada, plausível e confiável, ao reproduzir o comportamento estabelecido em sua concepção. Os parâmetros alicerçadores que constituíram o corpo teórico, concluindo, foram assaz abrangentes e permitiram a construção do instrumento de avaliação de desempenho ambiental IDEA PNRS+L, considerado adequado para a arbitragem das organizações. Concomitantemente, foram recuperadas as normas, concepções de iniciativas governamentais e atitudes profissionais ambientalmente corretas apoiadas em conceitos vanguardistas de produtos e serviços. / This Thesis develops an instrument for evaluating environmental performance in management of industrial solid waste. The practices verification consider the industrial product life-cycle through indicators and indices based on the National Policy on Solid Waste parameters and related concepts such as reverse logistics, Cleaner Production and Ecodesign, and standards like ISO 14000 series such as environmental management systems, integrating environmental aspects in product design and development, environmental labels and Environmental Performance Evaluation. The central Thesis’ aim, that was to develop an environmental evaluating model, contains this panorama, which calls on a fuzzy modeling tool to assist organizations in making decisions. Two methodological research groups covered the dicussions and the instrument construction called Environmental Performance Index of Industrial Solid Waste Management (IDEA PNRS+L): qualitative and quantitative. This fuzzy modeling is composed of 26 indicators and 23 index, conceived in top- down soft decision tree form. The index calculation - composed of fuzzy rules, variables and their inferences - included a group of specialists respondents view, through a survey, to adjust the variables influence degrees of each index. In the simulations, testing and application of the created instrument in an industry to assess their potential, IDEA PNRS+L was sensitive even to small variations of the input data, plausible and reliable, to reproduce the behavior established in the initial configuration. Concluding, the fundamental parameters that formed the theoretical framework were quite comprehensive and allowed the construction of Environmental Performance Evaluation called IDEA PNRS+L, appropriated for industrial arbitration. Simultaneously, the rules, government initiatives concepts and accurated environmentally professional attitudes supported by avant-garde products and services concepts were recuperated.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) production has significantly increased in the rapidly urbanizing developing world and also changed composition with increased decomposable organic fraction in MSW (OFMSW) and plastics content. This has stressed the environment in many ways while city managers and citizens have responded with various technological and management solutions leading to a need for scientific, environmental, technological and sustainability assessments of the emerging problems. This sets the research agenda and framework for this study wherein the MSW generation, composition, processing and treatment methods, open dumping practices, environmental liability, natural degradation, sustainability issues etc. have been studied for the city of Bangalore as a model for such an emerging problem. Results show that MSW generation ranged from 0.1-0.4 kg/person/day and the OFMSW content was >80% emerging predominantly from fruit, vegetable and food wastes. About 10-15% of daily MSW generated appeared to be haphazardly dumped around the city in ~700 small to large dumps ranging from 10-6,500 m2 with potential for large GHG emissions. Their spread and characteristics were assessed for 3 consecutive years using a novel rapid survey method developed at IISc involving motorcycle borne student volunteer teams, GPS enabled locating, physical measurements and satellite image interpretations. Results indicated that dump sites were of three types, ephemeral small sized in the core area (303) functioning as transfer stations, medium sized ones in outer areas that were closed rapidly with construction debris and very soon inhabited with dwellings and the larger and longer duration dumps (2-3 years, 393) in the peripheral regions within 10 km from the city administrative boundary. This method was compared with physical measurement and satellite imaging and gave very high level of accuracy and is hence suggested for other cities as well. A smaller fraction of MSW is also dumped in open drains that lead to choking and flooding of 3 locations and this was studied with some detail. The environmental footprint of such dumps were assessed by theoretical and experimental on-site and off-site approaches and experimental results show low GHG (CH4) emissions and emission factors that was largely attributable to the shallow depth of dumps (~0.7 m) and its low pH. The decomposition rates were experimentally determined for open dump sites and drivers for decomposition monitored. By providing differential access to macro-fauna, meso-micro organisms and only soil contact in field scale experiments it was determined that the greatest loss in weight occurred primarily due to the rapid drying process that brings down decomposition within 6 days. During the early stages of decomposition, mostly micro with meso organisms are responsible and after 6 days, the moisture content falls below 60% making microbiological decomposition difficult and enabling other foraging organisms to take over. The weight loss (decay) could be patterned both on exponential decay or a two component fit representing a rapid initial decay followed by a slower long term decay process similar to soil application of organic matter. Monitoring the decentralized MSWM practices in the city suggests that small scale composting and biomethanation is gaining acceptance and is the possible direction for OFMSW in growing cities.

MESHWR / Department of Hydrology and Water Resources / This research involves the investigation of the interaction of different sized Nano Gold particles released into municipal drinking water and municipal waste water. Waste water was collected from Malamulele waste water treatment plant and the municipal water was collected at Mintek in Johannesburg, Randburg, South Africa. The waste water was analysed using ICP-MS to detect the metals and anions in it. The results showed the abundance of Sulphur (464 ppm), Calcium (28 ppm), Chloride (27.8 ppm), Iron (20 ppm), Magnesium (8.2 ppm), silicon (6.192 ppm) in descending order and other trace elements, including gold, that were immeasurable (<0.1). The simulated situation was created by adding 20nm gold and 40nm gold nanoparticles into municipal drinking water and waste water and kept at different environmental conditions (light, light and agitation, dark, dark and agitation) under aerobic and anaerobic conditions over a period of two months. Physico-chemical properties (pH and chemical oxygen demand) of the solutions were checked once in a month. The pH fluctuated between the acceptable ranges (5.5 – 9.5) for the two month period. Both municipal water and waste water, with and without gold nanoparticles, under aerobic condition showed an increase in chemical oxygen demand. The gold content in waste water under anaerobic condition showed an increase while under aerobic condition the decline in gold content was evident. The zeta potential of gold nanoparticles in waste water in light and agitation showed (-30 mV) while waste water on other environmental condition (light, dark and dark with agitation) presenting unstable (-18 mV) charge, but the charge shifted positively on the second month rendering them also unstable. Dynamic light scattering and TEM were used to check any possible aggregation or agglomeration of nanoparticles in the waste water. There were some few discrepancies where TEM and DLS contradict, but overall there was no significant probability of any aggregation of gold nanoparticles. The EDX was used to confirm the presence of Au0 in the waste water (with added gold nanoparticles). The research did show that the gold nanoparticles would exist as Au0 in the waste water and thus the discharge of Au-NPs to the sewer system is not recommended, but rather recycle them.