abstract: The implications of a changing climate have a profound impact on human life, society, and policy making. The need for accurate climate prediction becomes increasingly important as we better understand these implications. Currently, the most widely used climate prediction relies on the synthesis of climate model simulations organized by the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP); these simulations are ensemble-averaged to construct projections for the 21st century climate. However, a significant degree of bias and variability in the model simulations for the 20th century climate is well-known at both global and regional scales. Based on that insight, this study provides an alternative approach for constructing climate projections that incorporates knowledge of model bias. This approach is demonstrated to be a viable alternative which can be easily implemented by water resource managers for potentially more accurate projections. Tests of the new approach are provided on a global scale with an emphasis on semiarid regional studies for their particular vulnerability to water resource changes, using both the former CMIP Phase 3 (CMIP3) and current Phase 5 (CMIP5) model archives. This investigation is accompanied by a detailed analysis of the dynamical processes and water budget to understand the behaviors and sources of model biases. Sensitivity studies of selected CMIP5 models are also performed with an atmospheric component model by testing the relationship between climate change forcings and model simulated response. The information derived from each study is used to determine the progressive quality of coupled climate models in simulating the global water cycle by rigorously investigating sources of model bias related to the moisture budget. As such, the conclusions of this project are highly relevant to model development and potentially may be used to further improve climate projections. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Mechanical Engineering 2013

abstract: Ten regional climate models (RCMs) and atmosphere-ocean generalized model parings from the North America Regional Climate Change Assessment Program were used to estimate the shift of extreme precipitation due to climate change using present-day and future-day climate scenarios. RCMs emulate winter storms and one-day duration events at the sub-regional level. Annual maximum series were derived for each model pairing, each modeling period; and for annual and winter seasons. The reliability ensemble average (REA) method was used to qualify each RCM annual maximum series to reproduce historical records and approximate average predictions, because there are no future records. These series determined (a) shifts in extreme precipitation frequencies and magnitudes, and (b) shifts in parameters during modeling periods. The REA method demonstrated that the winter season had lower REA factors than the annual season. For the winter season the RCM pairing of the Hadley regional Model 3 and the Geophysical Fluid-Dynamics Laboratory atmospheric-land generalized model had the lowest REA factors. However, in replicating present-day climate, the pairing of the Abdus Salam International Center for Theoretical Physics' Regional Climate Model Version 3 with the Geophysical Fluid-Dynamics Laboratory atmospheric-land generalized model was superior. Shifts of extreme precipitation in the 24-hour event were measured using precipitation magnitude for each frequency in the annual maximum series, and the difference frequency curve in the generalized extreme-value-function parameters. The average trend of all RCM pairings implied no significant shift in the winter annual maximum series, however the REA-selected models showed an increase in annual-season precipitation extremes: 0.37 inches for the 100-year return period and for the winter season suggested approximately 0.57 inches for the same return period. Shifts of extreme precipitation were estimated using predictions 70 years into the future based on RCMs. Although these models do not provide climate information for the intervening 70 year period, the models provide an assertion on the behavior of future climate. The shift in extreme precipitation may be significant in the frequency distribution function, and will vary depending on each model-pairing condition. The proposed methodology addresses the many uncertainties associated with the current methodologies dealing with extreme precipitation. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Civil and Environmental Engineering 2013

Title: Frequency analysis of precipitation amounts Author: Mgr. Zuzana Rulfová Department: Department of Atmospheric Physics Supervisor: RNDr. Jan Kyselý, Ph.D., Institute of Atmospheric Physics CAS Abstract: This thesis deals with analysing characteristics of mean and extreme precipitation in observations and regional climate models (RCMs) with respect to their convective and stratiform origin. An algorithm for subdivision of precipitation amounts into predominantly convective and stratiform using station weather data is proposed and evaluated. The time series of convective and stratiform precipitation from the Czech Republic over 1982-2010 are used for analysing basic climatological characteristics of precipitation, including extremes, and evaluating RCMs from the ENSEMBLES project. Projected changes of convective and stratiform precipitation in Central Europe (the Czech Republic) are analysed using data from RCM simulations from the EURO-CORDEX project. The last part of the thesis introduces a new statistical model for analysing precipitation extremes. This model takes advantage from knowledge of origin of precipitation extremes. In future climate we could expect more convective and stratiform precipitation amounts in all seasons except summer, when climate models project decline in amounts of stratiform...

The Himalaya plays a vital role in shaping the hydro-climate of South Asia and beyond, but their climate has not yet been monitored and modelled as well as some other regions. As the summer monsoon is the dominant climate system over South Asia, including the Himalaya, realistic simulation of the South Asian summer monsoon (SASM) should be a prerequisite for the satisfactory simulation of the Himalayan climate. The present research tests the assumption that higher resolution modelling will provide improved representation of the SASM, both regionally and over the Himalaya region. The first part of this research assesses the strength and stability of the temporal relationships between the monsoon rainfall indices (MRIs) and the large-scale monsoon circulation indices (MCIs), as a precursor to using such indices for model evaluation. The remainder of the thesis evaluates model performance in simulating various characteristics of SASM, mainly with regard to precipitation. In particular, the sensitivity of a regional climate model (RCM) simulation to domain size and added value of high resolution RCM simulation are evaluated. For this purpose, the Hadley Centre unified model - HadGEM is utilized in its regional and, in few instances, global configurations. The RCM simulations are performed at 0.44° and 0.11° horizontal resolutions and they are forced by the ERA interim dataset. Results show that i) the MRI-MCI relationship exhibits considerable low-frequency variability, ii) RCM simulation of SASM, particularly precipitation, shows sensitivity to domain size and simulation with a moderately sized domain that partially excludes bias prone equatorial Indian ocean outperform those with larger domains, iii) high resolution RCM simulation adds value in many aspects of SASM precipitation, including the seasonal mean, relative frequency distribution, extremes, and active and break monsoon composites, but the improvements are generally seen over the Indo-Gangetic plain rather than the Himalaya. The findings promote use of a high resolution RCM over a moderate sized domain (~ 25,000,000 sq. km) for the realistic simulation of SASM, but the study needs to be repeated with multiple realizations and different RCMs before arriving at a robust conclusion.

Dans le contexte du changement climatique, il est nécessaire d'affiner les informations relatives à l'évolution du climat dans un pays, susceptible d'être négativement impacté par le réchauffement global, comme le Maroc. En effet, les différentes études de projections futures, dont celles du GIEC, sont basées majoritairement sur les sorties de modèles climatiques à faible résolution qui ne permettent pas d'aborder les échelles régionales et locales. La première partie de ce travail concerne l'étude des tendances et évolutions observées au niveau du climat du Maroc à travers un certain nombre d'indices climatiques. Outre la forte variabilité interannuelle des précipitations et l'augmentation de la fréquence des sécheresses depuis le début des années 1980, la distribution des précipitations du Maroc a bien connu un changement au cours de la période 1961-2008. Ce changement, consistant en une évolution vers des conditions plus sèches, a coïncidé avec une augmentation de la température moyenne en toutes saisons. L'évaluation des changements futurs est réalisée tout d'abord à l'aide d'une descente d'échelle dynamique effectuée avec le modèle ARPEGE-Climat dans sa version à résolution variable. L'examen des capacités du modèle, dont la résolution est de l'ordre de 50km sur le Maroc, a montré son aptitude à simuler correctement la circulation de grande échelle ainsi que la variabilité interannuelle des précipitations marocaines en dépit d'une sous-estimation de leur quantité. A l'horizon 2021-2050, une baisse des cumuls généralisée à tout le pays concernerait la saison d'hiver (DJF). Si on se limite à la zone située à l'ouest des montagnes de l'Atlas, la baisse concernerait la partie la plus pluvieuse de l'année (ONDJFM). Cette baisse serait accompagnée d'une diminution du nombre de jours humides et du nombre d'événements de fortes précipitations ainsi que d'une augmentation de la persistance temporelle de la sécheresse. Ce changement de la distribution des précipitations coïnciderait avec un réchauffement qui se manifesterait à la fois aux échelles saisonnière et annuelle. Les sorties d'une dizaine de modèles régionaux de climat (MRC) du projet FP6-ENSEMBLES, sont utilisées pour balayer une partie de la marge des incertitudes relatives aux changements climatiques et notamment celles inhérentes à la modélisation. Les changements futurs issus de ces MRC, compatibles dans l'ensemble avec ceux issus d'ARPEGE-Climat, optent dans la plupart des cas pour une réduction des cumuls pluviométriques de l'hiver accompagnée généralement d'une baisse du nombre d'événements de fortes précipitations et d'une augmentation du nombre maximal de jours consécutifs secs. L'examen, réalisé à la fois à l'aide du modèle ARPEGE-Climat et des MRC d'ENSEMBLES, de la possibilité d'utilisation d'une méthode de réduction d'échelle statistique basée sur les régimes de temps de l'Atlantique nord pour la déduction des changements futurs des précipitations locales, montre la déficience de ce type d'approche dans le cas de la pluviométrie hivernale marocaine. La méthode de correction par quantiles étendues aux régimes de temps de l'Atlantique nord et appliquée aux sorties d'ARPEGE-Climat confirme le signe des changements issus de ce modèles, malgré un effet légèrement modérateur de leurs amplitudes. L'évaluation des impacts potentiels sur l'hydrologie à l'aide du modèle hydrologique GR2M et des scénarios climatiques d'ARPEGE-Climat, montre une future réduction des débits mensuels au niveau du bassin versant de la Moulouya du fait de la concomitance de précipitations moins abondantes et d'une évapotranspiration potentielle accrue par l'augmentation de température. Enfin, une descente d'échelle dynamique réalisée à l'aide du modèle à aire limitée ALADIN-Climat à très haute résolution (12km) sur la moitié nord du pays permet de confirmer dans l'ensemble les projections issues d'ARPEGE-Climat à la fois en termes de moyennes et d'extrêmes. / In the context of climate change, it is important to improve climate information concerning countries that may be negatively impacted by global warming such as Morocco. Indeed, various studies of future projections, including IPCC ones, are mainly based on the outputs of low resolution climate models that do not allow accessing the regional and local scales. The first part of this work focuses on the study and analysis of observed climate evolution and trends in Morocco through a set of climate indices. Moroccan rainfall is characterized by a high interannual variability and more frequent droughts have occurred since the early 1980s. Furthermore, a clear change is shown in the distribution of precipitation during the period 1961-2008. It consists in a shift towards warmer and drier conditions. The assessment of future climate changes is done, firstly, using a variable resolution version of the global GCM ARPEGE-Climat with high resolution over Morocco (50km). The examination of this version capability shows the ability of the model to well reproduce the large scale circulation as well as the interannual variability of Moroccan rainfall despite an underestimation of its amount. A reduction of winter rainfall over the whole country is projected by the model for 2021-2050. In the region located west of the Atlas Mountains, the reduction could concern the wettest part of the year (ONDJFM). The changes in rainfall characteristics may also occur through a decrease in the number of wet days and the number of heavy precipitation events and by more persistent droughts. Furthermore, an increase of mean temperature is projected at annual and seasonal scales. The outputs of ten RCMs of the FP6-ENSEMBLES (ENSEMBLES) project are used to assess the uncertainties associated to future climate change. The changes issued from ARPEGE-Climat are in the range covered by the ten RCMs. Most of the models agreed on a reduction of winter precipitation associated with a decrease in the number of heavy precipitation events and an increase in the number of maximum consecutive dry days. The evaluation of a statistical downscaling approach that uses large scale fields such as North Atlantic weather regimes to construct local scenarios of future climate change shows the deficiency of this approach in the case of Moroccan winter precipitation. This result is obtained by both ARPEGE-Climat and the ENSEMBLES RCMs. The quantile-quantile correction method extended to weather regimes and applied to the outputs of ARPEGE-Climat confirms the sign of the changes despite a slight reduction of their amplitudes. The assessment of potential impacts on hydrology done using the hydrological model GR2M and the climate scenarios issued from ARPEGE-Climat shows a future reduction of the Moulouya watershed discharges. This is due to the combination of a rainfall decrease and an enhanced potential evapotranspiration induced by increasing temperature. Finally, a dynamical downscaling achieved using the limited area model ALADINClimat with very high resolution (12km) on the northern half of the country allows a further assessment of future climate changes and related uncertainties. The projections issued from ARPEGE-Climat are generally confirmed both in terms of average and of extremes

La vitiviniculture est un secteur économique et culturel important en Bourgogne. L’actuel changement climatique soulève diverses questions notamment sur son impact sur les cultures. Dans cette thèse, l’idée est d’élaborer une méthodologie afin de répondre à la problématique : quels seront les impacts possibles des changements de températures sur la phénologie du Pinot noir en Bourgogne à l’horizon 2031-2048 ?L’évolution des températures en Bourgogne depuis 1961 est caractérisée par un saut positif de température à la fin des années 1980 suivi par une période où la température augmente d’environ 1,5°C.L’un des intérêts de cette thèse réside dans l’élaboration, en suivant une stratégie élaborée durant la thèse, d’une base de données spatialisée réalisée sur la période 1989-2009 afin d’estimer la capacité du modèle WRF à reproduire le climat bourguignon en désagrégeant des données climatiques de large échelle. Le modèle reproduit de façon satisfaisante le cycle saisonnier et la variabilité spatiale climatique globale aux biais près (froid sur les Tx et chauds sur les Tn).Pour régionaliser le changement climatique, WRF a été utilisé pour désagréger des données issues du scénario SRES/A2 sur les périodes 1970-1987 et 2031-2048. Après avoir été évalués et intercomparés trois modèles phénologiques utilisant les données de températures moyennes pour simuler les dates d’occurrence des stages phénologiques du Pinot noir, ont été appliqués sur ces désagrégations.L’impact de l’augmentation des températures à l’horizon 2031-2048 (SRES/A2), estimée à 1,35°C en moyenne, se caractérise par une précocité de la floraison d’au moins 7 jours et une précocité de la véraison d’au moins 15 jours. La durée interstade est également diminuée de l’ordre de 5 jours. / The viticulture is an important economic and cultural sector in Burgundy. The current climate change raises a number of issues including its impact on crops. In this thesis, the idea is to develop a methodology to address the problem: what are the potential impacts of changes in temperature on the phenology of Pinot noir in Burgundy for years 2031-2048?The evolution of temperatures in Burgundy since 1961 is characterized by a positive temperature shift at the end of the 1980s followed by a period where the temperature increases of about 1.5 ° C.One of the interests of this thesis is to develop, following a strategy developed during the thesis, a spatial database conducted over the period 1989-2009 to estimate the ability of the WRF model to reproduce the climate Burgundy by disaggregating large scale data. The model reproduces satisfactorily the seasonal and spatial variability in global climate despite bias (cold on the Tx and hot on the Tn).To regionalize the climate change, WRF was used to disaggregate data from the scenario SRES/A2 on the periods 1970-1987 and 2031-2048. After being evaluated and inter-compared three phenological models, using average temperatures data to simulate the dates of occurrence of phenological stages of Pinot Noir, have been applied to these decompositions.The impact of warming temperatures on the horizon 2031-2048 (SRES/A2), estimated at 1.35 ° C on average, is characterized by an earlier flowering and veraison of about 7 and 15 days respectively. The interstadial duration is also reduced of about 5 days.

Title: Changes of lengths of periods with characteristic air temperatures Author: Eva Černochová Department: Department of Meteorology and Environment Protection Supervisor: doc. RNDr. Jaroslava Kalvová, CSc. Supervisor's e-mail address: jaroslava.kalvova@mff.cuni.cz Abstract: Lengths of periods with characteristic air temperatures were derived using two different methods (linear interpolation, robust locally weighted regression) for 10 stations in the Czech Republic and for output data of regional climate models HIRHAM and RCAO in 4 grid points. Averages for a forty-year period (1961-2000) and for a thirty-year period (1961-1990) were computed as well as averages for every decade. Considerable attention was also paid to the analysis of methods used in the research. Most stations showed lengthening of growing season and summer during the twentieth century. Decennary average length of growing season and summer shortened in the years 1971-1980. The comparison of output data of regional climate models HIRHAM and RCAO and measured station data showed that the thirty-year average lengths of growing season and summer estimated by the two models were reasonably accurate approximately half of all cases. The models' estimates were not accurate at all concerning decennary averages. Keywords: robust locally...

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No. of bitstreams: 2 dissertacao_rodrigo_da_silva_pereira.pdf: 1723922 bytes, checksum: 18533319b08c17041a8e5681e41087ff (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-02-27 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Esta dissertação tem como propósito geral a análise do clima presente e o comportamento futuro dos eventos extremos de precipitação local de curta duração com potencial para causar alagamento nas principais cidades do Rio Grande do Sul abrangendo diferentes regiões do Estado: Porto Alegre, Caxias do Sul, Santa Maria e Pelotas. Baseado no histórico de alagamentos de cada cidade e nos dados diários de precipitação obtidos das estações meteorológicas do INMET (Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia) obteve-se o limiar que identificou a taxa de precipitação que representa um evento com potencial para causar alagamento na cidade, sendo os eventos divididos em caso de atenção (percentil 25) ou de alerta (percentil 75) nas 48h precedentes à ocorrência do alagamento. Os resultados revelaram um crescimento sutil dos casos, tanto atenção quanto alerta, nos últimos 53 anos. A cidade de Porto Alegre foi a que apresentou os menores limiares para condição de alagamento, o que era esperado devido sua maior urbanização. Ao avaliar o comportamento sazonal dos casos constatou-se que no clima presente (1961-2013), o trimestre julho-agosto-setembro foi a época do ano mais propícia a casos de alagamentos. Posteriormente, os casos foram correlacionados com três índices climáticos que medem as anomalias de TSM (Temperatura da Superfície do Mar) do Atlântico Sul e do Pacífico, no intuito de avaliar se suas ocorrências estão associadas a fenômenos climáticos de grande escala. As correlações encontradas variaram de fracas a moderadas, mas com alto nível de confiança estatística para o IME (Índice Multivariado do ENOS). O uso de modelagem climática regional (modelo ETA-HadCM3) denotou que num cenário futuro (A1B de acordo com o Painel Intergovernamental sobre Mudanças Climáticas) para o período de 2021-2070 haverá no geral, um pequeno acréscimo no número de casos de atenção para todas as cidades, quando comparado aos valores observados no clima presente (1961-2013). Em Pelotas, haverá uma mudança na climatologia dos eventos com deslocamento da estação com maior número de casos do trimestre JAS (clima presente) para o OND (cenário futuro). / This work has as general purpose the analysis of present climate and future behavior of short duration extreme local rainfall events with potential for causing flooding in major cities in Rio Grande do Sul State covering different regions: Porto Alegre, Caxias do Sul, Santa Maria and Pelotas. Based on history of floods of each city and on the rainfall data obtained from meteorological stations of INMET (National Institute of Meteorology), the thresholds that have identified which precipitation rate is an event with the potential to cause flooding in the city were obtained, being such events divided in case of attention (25th percentile) or case of alert (75th percentile) in 48 hours before the occurrence of flooding. The results showed a subtle increase of cases, both as alert and attention in the last 53 years. The city of Porto Alegre was presented the least thresholds for flooding condition, which was expected due to its increased urbanization. In assessing the seasonal behavior of the cases it was found that in this climate, the July-August-September was the time of year most facilitates cases of flooding. Later, cases were correlated with three climate indices that measure the SST (Sea Surface Temperature) anomalies in order to assess whether their occurrences are associate to large-scale climatic phenomena. It was found weak to moderate correlations, but with a high level of statistical confidence for the EMI (ENSO Multivariate Index). The use of regional climate model (ETA-HadCM3) denotes that in a future scenario (A1B following International Panel on Climate Change) for the period 2021-2070 will be in general an increase number of cases of attention for all cities, when compared to those observed in the present climate (1961-2013). In Pelotas there will be a climatological change due to a displacement of the season with more cases: from JAS quarter (present) to OND quarter (future scenario).

Climate change is altering hydrological processes with varying degrees in various regions of the world. This research work investigates the possible impacts of climate change on water resource and Hydropower production potential in central and southern Africa. The Congo, Zambezi and Kwanza, Shire, Kafue and Kabompo basins that lie in central and southern Africa are used as case studies. The review of climate change impact studies shows that there are few studies on impacts of climate change on hydropower production. Most of these studies were carried out in Europe and north America and very few in Asia, south America and Africa. The few studies indicate that southern Africa would experience reduction in precipitation and runoff, consequently reductions in hydropower production. There are no standard methods of assessing the resulting impacts. Two approaches were used to assess the impacts of climate change on water resources and hydropower. One approach is lumping changes on country or regional level and use the mean climate changes on mean annual flows as the basis for regional changes in hydropower production. This is done to get an overall picture of the changes on global and regional level. The second approach is a detailed assessment process in which downscaling, hydrological modelling and hydropower simulations are carried out. The possible future climate scenarios for the region of central and southern Africa depicted that some areas where precipitation are likely to have increases while other, precipitation will reduce. The region northern Zambia and southern Congo showed increases while the northern Congo basin showed reductions. Further south in southern African region, there is a tendency of decreases in precipitation. To the west, in Angola, inland showed increases while towards the coast highlighted some decreases in precipitation. On a global scale, hydropower is likely to experience slight changes (0.08%) due to climate change by 2050. Africa is projected for a slight decrease (0.05%), Asia with an increase of 0.27%, Europe a reduction up to 0.16% while America is projected to have an increase of 0.05%. In the eastern African region, it was shown that hydropower production is likely to increase by 0.59%, the central with 0.22% and the western with a 0.03%. The southern, and northern African regions were projected to have reductions of 0.83% and 0.48% respectively. The basins with increases in flow projections have a slight increase on hydropower production but not proportional to the increase in precipitation. The basins with decreases had even high change as the reduction was further increased by evaporation losses. The hydropower production potential of most of southern African basins is likely to decrease in the future due to the impact of climate change while the central African region shows an increasing trend. The hydropower system in these regions will be affected consequently. The hydropower production changes will vary from basin to basin in these regions. The Zambezi, Kafue and Shire river basins have negative changes while the Congo, Kwanza and Kabompo river basins have positive changes. The hydropower production potential in the Zambezi basin decreases by 9 - 34%. The hydropower production potential in the Kafue basin decreases by 8 - 34% and the Shire basin decreases by 7 - 14 %. The southern region will become drier with shorter rainy seasons. The central region will become wetter with increased runoff. The hydropower production potential in the Congo basin reduces slightly and then increases by 4% by the end of the century. The hydropower production potential in the Kwanza basin decreases by 3% and then increases by 10% towards the end of the century and the Kabompo basin production increases by 6 - 18%. It can be concluded that in the central African region hydropower production will, in general, increase while the southern African region, hydropower production will decrease. In summary, the analysis has shown that the southern African region is expected to experience decreases in rainfall and increases in temperature. This will result in reduced runoff. However the northern part of southern Africa is expected to remain relatively the same with slight increase, moving northwards towards the central African region where mainly increases have been registered. The southern African region is likely to experience reductions up to 5 - 20% while the central African region is likely to experience an increase in runoff in the range of 1 - 5%. Lack of data was observed as a critical limiting factor in modelling in the central and southern Africa region. The designs, plans and operations based on poor hydrological data severely compromise performance and decrease efficiency of systems. Climate change is expected to change these risks. The normal extrapolations of historical data will be less reliable as the past will become an increasingly poor predictor of the future. Better (observed) data is recommended in future assessments and if not better tools and methods for data collection/ should be used. Future designs, plans and operations should include and aspect of climate change, if the region is to benefit from the climate change impacts.

Title: Analysis of Climate Model Outputs Author: RNDr. Zuzana Chládová E-mail: zuzana.chladova@gmail.com Department: Department of Meteorology and Environment Protection, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University in Prague Supervisor: RNDr. Aleš Raidl, Ph.D. Supervisor's e-mail address: ales.raidl@mff.cuni.cz Consultant: doc. RNDr. Jaroslava Kalvová, CSc. Regional climate models are currently the most important tools regularly used for downscaling outputs of global climate models. This analysis compares control and future runs of the global climate models HadCM3, ECHAM5/OPYC3 and ARPÉGE/OPA and the regional climate models RCAO, RCA3, HIRHAM4, HIRHAM5 and ALADIN- CLIMATE/CZ with observed data and CRU data for the Czech Republic. In the period 1961-1990, the global climate models underestimated the air temperature in comparison with corresponding virtual time series representing real data; mean annual courses and variance of the temperature, on the other hand, were simulated satisfactorily. The results of the regional climate models showed overestimation of the model temperature in winter season, while in other seasons the model temperatures corresponded better with real values and the results of simulation were generally more accurate in comparison with global climate models. Concerning...