Few researchers have compared preference for reinforcement and response cost within a token economy, and the results have shown that preference varies among individuals (e.g., Donaldson et al., 2014; Iwata & Bailey, 1974; Jowett Hirst et al., 2016). Preference for response cost is an interesting phenomenon because response cost is a punishment procedure and is often considered aversive. Therefore, identifying the variables that influence preference for response cost is an important area of research. Some authors have suggested that the immediate delivery or presence of tokens might influence preference for response cost, but these variables have yet to be experimentally evaluated. The current study evaluated whether the presence of tokens influences selection of response cost over reinforcement in three typically developing preschool children by systematically varying the presence of tokens across both the reinforcement and response cost procedures. Results suggest that the presence of tokens influenced selection for one out of three participants. Implications of the results are discussed in terms of clinical application and directions for future research.

Token economies incorporating differential reinforcement of other behavior and response cost have been shown to be effective for decreasing behavior. However, these token economies in the literature have differed in their findings of the effectiveness of and preference for differential reinforcement of other behavior and response cost. They have also differed in the way they implemented token economies including factors such as the immediacy of a consequence and the use of verbal feedback. Therefore, we examined two versions of response cost, one in which the contingency is experienced immediately and one in which it is experienced at end of an interval, with differential reinforcement of other behavior. We also examined these contingencies with the addition of verbal feedback and the participant preference for conditions. Results demonstrated that there was a faster decrease in errors during the response cost immediate conditions when compared to response cost delay and DRO conditions. All conditions resulted in fewer errors than the conditions without verbal feedback and preference was found to be variable. Response cost immediate resulted in the most raffle tickets earned during the no verbal feedback phases and most of the verbal feedback phases.

Previous research on implementer preference for behavioral interventions is limited. This study empirically evaluated teachers’ preference for implementing two types of token economies in a classroom to increase on-task behavior of students. The two types of token economies were response cost and differential reinforcement of alternative behavior implemented using an interdependent group contingency. The results showed both teachers preferred response cost over differential reinforcement of alternative behavior.

abstract: A converging operations approach using response time distribution modeling was adopted to better characterize the cognitive control dynamics underlying ongoing task cost and cue detection in event based prospective memory (PM). In Experiment 1, individual differences analyses revealed that working memory capacity uniquely predicted nonfocal cue detection, while proactive control and inhibition predicted variation in ongoing task cost of the ex-Gaussian parameter associated with continuous monitoring strategies (mu). In Experiments 2A and 2B, quasi-experimental techniques aimed at identifying the role of proactive control abilities in PM monitoring and cue detection suggested that low ability participants may have PM deficits during demanding tasks due to inefficient monitoring strategies, but that emphasizing importance of the intention can increase reliance on more efficacious monitoring strategies that boosts performance (Experiment 2A). Furthermore, high proactive control ability participants are able to efficiently regulate their monitoring strategies under scenarios that do not require costly monitoring for successful cue detection (Experiment 2B). In Experiments 3A and 3B, it was found that proactive control benefited cue detection in interference-rich environments, but the neural correlates of cue detection or intention execution did not differ when engaged in proactive versus reactive control. The results from the current set of studies highlight the importance of response time distribution modeling in understanding PM cost. Additionally, these results have important implications for extant theories of PM and have considerable applied ramifications concerning the cognitive control processes that should be targeted to improve PM abilities. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Psychology 2015

There is some discrepancy on how differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) and response cost (RC) affect responding within the context of token economies. We evaluated DRO and two variations of response cost with and without verbal feedback to decrease response errors in the context of academic skills for three children diagnosed with Down syndrome. The results suggest that a token economy intervention alone, with or without verbal feedback, was not effective for 2 of 3 participants. Gestural prompting was required to reduce response errors for those 2 participants and is possibly responsible for reducing response errors for the third participant.

Estudos sobre choques sinalizados e sobre respostas de observação têm demonstrado sistematicamente que estímulos correlacionados com ausência de choques ou apresentação de reforço mantêm as respostas que os produzem, enquanto que estímulos correlacionados com apresentação de choques ou ausência de reforço não as mantêm. No entanto, esses estudos raramente têm incluído contingências de punição que permitam comparações diretas, deixando de lado as respostas de observação de estímulos discriminativos de punição. O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar os efeitos do ganho (reforço: REF), a manutenção (extinção: EXT) e a perda (punição: PUN) de pontos, dependente e independentemente de uma resposta efetiva, sobre respostas de observação oculares de adultos. Os participantes foram expostos a uma tarefa de discriminação visual em esquema múltiplo com dois componentes, cada um com um estímulo visual diferente associado. Usando um equipamento de rastreamento ocular, o estímulo de cada componente foi apresentado apenas enquanto eram registradas fixações na região em que estava programado para ser apresentado. Em cada fase foram comparadas duas consequências da resposta efetiva (REF vs. EXT, EXT vs. PUN e REF vs. PUN) e foram mensuradas a frequência e duração das fixações nos estímulos de cada contingência. Para os participantes do Grupo Experimental os pontos foram dependentes das respostas efetivas e para os participantes do Grupo Acoplado os pontos foram independentes de qualquer resposta e foram apresentados conforme tinham sido obtidos pelos participantes do Grupo Experimental. Os participantes dos dois grupos mantiveram a resposta de observação aos estímulos, embora sem mostrar uma preferência sistemática pelo estímulo da contingência mais favorável de cada fase. O resultado mais sistemático foi que os participantes do Grupo Experimental observaram por mais tempo os estímulos associados à perda na condição REF vs. PUN. Esses resultados coincidem com os de estudos prévios e são discutidos em termos de aumento da eficiência da resposta efetiva. Também são discutidos a função dos estímulos discriminativos na manutenção das respostas de observação e parâmetros que podem ter afetado a ocorrência de observação seletiva entre os grupos / Research about signaled shocks and observing responses has shown that stimuli paired with absence of shock or reinforcement maintain the responses that produce them, but stimuli paired with shock or absence of reinforcement do not. However, those studies rarely have included a punishment contingency for direct comparison, disregarding the observing responses of stimulus of punishment contingencies. This study was conducted with the aim of comparing the effects of gaining (reinforcement: REF), maintaining (extinction: EXT), and losing (punishment: PUN) points, dependently and independently of a manual response, over the ocular observing responses of adult participants. The task was a simple discrimination in a two-component multiple schedule. With an eye-tracker equipment, stimulus of each component was shown only when a fixation was recorded in the area where it was programmed. In each experimental condition, two contingencies were compared (REF vs. EXT, PUN vs. EXT, and REF vs. PUN) and the duration and frequency of fixations to each stimulus were recorded. For participants in the Experimental Group, responses were dependent on responses on the keyboard and, for participants in the Yoked Group, the points were administered independently of any response and according to the schedules obtained by the participants in the Experimental Group. Participants from both groups maintained the observing responses, although without showing a preference for the stimulus associated with the most \'desirable\' result in each condition. The most consistent result was that participants in the Experimental Group observed for longer periods the stimulus associated with point-loss during the condition REF vs PUN. These results are in agreement with those of previous studies and are discussed in terms of increase in response efficiency. The function of discriminative stimulus in maintaining observing responses and parameters that might have affected the occurrence of selective observing are also discussed

Estudos sobre choques sinalizados e sobre respostas de observação têm demonstrado sistematicamente que estímulos correlacionados com ausência de choques ou apresentação de reforço mantêm as respostas que os produzem, enquanto que estímulos correlacionados com apresentação de choques ou ausência de reforço não as mantêm. No entanto, esses estudos raramente têm incluído contingências de punição que permitam comparações diretas, deixando de lado as respostas de observação de estímulos discriminativos de punição. O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar os efeitos do ganho (reforço: REF), a manutenção (extinção: EXT) e a perda (punição: PUN) de pontos, dependente e independentemente de uma resposta efetiva, sobre respostas de observação oculares de adultos. Os participantes foram expostos a uma tarefa de discriminação visual em esquema múltiplo com dois componentes, cada um com um estímulo visual diferente associado. Usando um equipamento de rastreamento ocular, o estímulo de cada componente foi apresentado apenas enquanto eram registradas fixações na região em que estava programado para ser apresentado. Em cada fase foram comparadas duas consequências da resposta efetiva (REF vs. EXT, EXT vs. PUN e REF vs. PUN) e foram mensuradas a frequência e duração das fixações nos estímulos de cada contingência. Para os participantes do Grupo Experimental os pontos foram dependentes das respostas efetivas e para os participantes do Grupo Acoplado os pontos foram independentes de qualquer resposta e foram apresentados conforme tinham sido obtidos pelos participantes do Grupo Experimental. Os participantes dos dois grupos mantiveram a resposta de observação aos estímulos, embora sem mostrar uma preferência sistemática pelo estímulo da contingência mais favorável de cada fase. O resultado mais sistemático foi que os participantes do Grupo Experimental observaram por mais tempo os estímulos associados à perda na condição REF vs. PUN. Esses resultados coincidem com os de estudos prévios e são discutidos em termos de aumento da eficiência da resposta efetiva. Também são discutidos a função dos estímulos discriminativos na manutenção das respostas de observação e parâmetros que podem ter afetado a ocorrência de observação seletiva entre os grupos / Research about signaled shocks and observing responses has shown that stimuli paired with absence of shock or reinforcement maintain the responses that produce them, but stimuli paired with shock or absence of reinforcement do not. However, those studies rarely have included a punishment contingency for direct comparison, disregarding the observing responses of stimulus of punishment contingencies. This study was conducted with the aim of comparing the effects of gaining (reinforcement: REF), maintaining (extinction: EXT), and losing (punishment: PUN) points, dependently and independently of a manual response, over the ocular observing responses of adult participants. The task was a simple discrimination in a two-component multiple schedule. With an eye-tracker equipment, stimulus of each component was shown only when a fixation was recorded in the area where it was programmed. In each experimental condition, two contingencies were compared (REF vs. EXT, PUN vs. EXT, and REF vs. PUN) and the duration and frequency of fixations to each stimulus were recorded. For participants in the Experimental Group, responses were dependent on responses on the keyboard and, for participants in the Yoked Group, the points were administered independently of any response and according to the schedules obtained by the participants in the Experimental Group. Participants from both groups maintained the observing responses, although without showing a preference for the stimulus associated with the most \'desirable\' result in each condition. The most consistent result was that participants in the Experimental Group observed for longer periods the stimulus associated with point-loss during the condition REF vs PUN. These results are in agreement with those of previous studies and are discussed in terms of increase in response efficiency. The function of discriminative stimulus in maintaining observing responses and parameters that might have affected the occurrence of selective observing are also discussed

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-29T13:18:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Karine Marques Caldeira.pdf: 5371979 bytes, checksum: 99ae97b8b6e3f3bd621aa5c6536fc650 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-05-20 / Behavioral variability is an operant dimension of behavior and, as like other dimensions, can be directly reinforced. Researches with animals have demonstrated that a history involving reinforcement of variability helps in the acquisition of new responses. The goal of the present work was to verify if direct reinforcement of variability can help human participants to acquire a response with low initial probability of occurrence and verify if conditions which involve different response cost have influence on produced variability. Eighteen adults were participants and they had to press two keys (on two keyboards, placed side by side) to produce a sequence of four responses. Six groups were made and they could vary the distance of the keyboards (distant or close), the conditions to which the participants were exposed to, and the order of exposition to the experimental conditions. The Var condition involved two contingencies operating concurrently: 1) completing sequences that reached the variability criterion established (on a schedule that consider the weighted relative frequency of a response called RDF), and 2) completing a specific target sequence on a VR2 schedule. The Aco condition also involved two contingencies operating concurrently: 1) completing sequences without being required to vary, but with availability of reinforcement according to the availability of reinforcement obtained in Var, and 2) completing a specific target sequence on a VR2 schedule. Control condition involved only one condition: completing a specific target sequence on a VR2 schedule. The results were analyzed according to the distribution of the responses within all the possible sequences and the evenness of this distribution, and also in relation to the U value. The results point that the contingency that required variability was effective in producing higher variability of responses compared to the variability observed in baseline. Nevertheless, the majority of participants that learned to complete the target sequence were from the groups of control condition. Furthermore, the different distances between the keyboards did not produce differences in response variability among the groups. The results presented on this work do not corroborate the results found on the literature in relation to the participants that were not exposed to direct reinforcement of variability learn the target sequence more frequently / A variabilidade comportamental é uma dimensão operante do comportamento e, assim como outras dimensões, é passível de ser diretamente reforçada. Estudos realizados com animais demonstraram que uma história envolvendo reforçamento de variabilidade ajuda na aquisição de novas respostas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar se o reforçamento direto da variabilidade pode ajudar participantes humanos a adquirir uma resposta com baixa probabilidade inicial de ocorrência e, também, verificar se condições que envolvem diferentes custos de respostas têm influência na variabilidade produzida. Dezoito adultos foram participantes e eles tinham que pressionar duas teclas (em teclados diferentes, colocados um ao lado do outro) para produzir uma seqüência de quatro respostas. Foram formados seis grupos, que poderiam variar com relação à distância entre os teclados (distantes ou próximos), às condições a que os participantes foram expostos e à ordem de exposição às condições. A condição Var envolvia duas contingências operando concorrentemente: 1) completar seqüências que atingissem o critério de variabilidade estabelecido (em esquema RDF), e 2) completar uma seqüência alvo específica em um esquema de VR2. A condição Aco também envolvia duas contingências operando concorrentemente: 1) completar seqüências sem exigência de variabilidade, mas com a liberação do reforço acoplada à liberação do reforço obtida na condição Var, e 2) completar uma seqüência alvo específica em um esquema de VR2. A condição controle envolvia apenas uma contingência: completar a seqüência alvo específica em um esquema de VR2. Os resultados foram analisados de acordo com a distribuição das respostas entre todas as seqüências possíveis e a uniformidade desta distribuição e, também, com relação ao índice U. Pôde-se observar pelos resultados que a contingência RDF foi eficaz para produzir maior variação de respostas em comparação com a variabilidade observada na linha de base. Entretanto, a maioria dos participantes que aprenderam a completar a seqüência alvo era dos grupos da condição controle, a qual também produziu variabilidade de respostas. Além disso, as diferentes distâncias entre os teclados não produziram diferenças na variabilidade de respostas entre os grupos. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho não corroboram os dados encontrados na literatura com relação à aprendizagem da seqüência alvo em maior número pelos participantes que não passaram pelo reforçamento direto da variabilidade