A cultura do eucalipto apresenta grande importância no setor florestal no mundo. No Brasil, 70% da área florestal plantada é destinada ao eucalipto. Entretanto, a ferrugem das mirtáceas, também conhecida como ferrugem do eucalipto, causada pelo fungo Puccinia psidii Winter, afeta o enorme potencial produtivo das plantações de eucalipto. A biologia, mecanismos de patogenicidade e genética desse patógeno são pouco conhecidos, apesar de sua importância para o setor florestal. Os elementos transponíveis (TEs) são sequências de DNA com a capacidade de migrar e influenciar a organização, integridade e evolução do genoma hospedeiro. O presente trabalho teve como principal objetivo estudar os TEs presentes no genoma de P. psidii, combinando ferramentas in silico e moleculares. A classificação dos elementos transponíveis no genoma de P. psidii MF-1 foi realizada utilizando contigs previamente minerados e remontados, bem como sem seleção prévia dos contigs, por meio do programa RepeatMasker. Ambas estratégias apontaram o predomínio de elementos da Classe I - LTR Retrotransposons no genoma de P. psidii MF-1. O resultado condiz com a composição de TEs em fungos fitopatogênicos descrita na literatura. Algumas análises in silico, como verificação de integridade e anotação manual de sequências proteicas foram também realizadas para alguns contigs classificados como TEs. Assim, foi possível observar a presença de sequências conservadas pertencentes à região pol em LTR Retrotransposons. Além disso, as análises permitiram inferir sobre a existência de TEs híbridos no genoma parcialmente sequenciado de P. psidii MF-1. Paralelamente foi também realizada uma análise comparativa entre os TEs presentes nos genomas de P. graminis, P. striiformis, P. triticina e P. psidii. Observou-se que P. graminis, P. striiformis e P. triticina apresentam maior frequência de elementos da Classe II, do tipo DNA Transposons ao contrário de P. psidii, com maior frequência de elementos da Classe I. Interessantemente, a quantidade de elementos desconhecidos foi similarmente alta para todos os quatro genomas avaliados. Este tipo de análise é muito importante, pois evidencia a grande quantidade de famílias de TEs novas a serem descobertas. Elas podem estar potencialmente relacionadas ao silenciamento de genes importantes à virulência destes patógenos. A utilização de TEs no estudo de diversidade genética entre populações é bastante comum. A técnica molecular IRAP foi utilizada para acessar a diversidade entre populações de P. psidii originárias de três híbridos de Eucalyptus spp., goiabeira, jambeiro e jabuticabeira. No entanto, esta técnica não se mostrou eficiente para detectar polimorfismos existentes entre estas populações. A anotação de TEs foi difícil devido à observação de sequências de elementos sobrepostas, o que podem representar híbridos de TEs, entretanto, visando a confirmação desta hipótese por meio da PCR, alguns contigs serão sequenciados e mais estudos devem ser realizados para a continuação desta confirmação. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho são inéditos e representam uma etapa crucial no entendimento de TEs em fungos do gênero Puccinia, em especial do patógeno P. psidii para o desenvolvimento de melhores mecanismos de controle de ferrugem. / The culture of eucalyptus has great importance worldwide in forestry sector. In Brazil, 70% of cultivated forest area is intended for Eucalyptus. However, the eucalyptus potential productive has been affected by rust disease, caused by the fungus Puccinia psidii Winter. Despite its importance to brazilian and world forest sector, the knowledge of biology, genetic and pathogenic mechanisms of this pathogen is scarce. Transposable elements (TEs) are mobile DNA fragments that influence the organization and development of the host genome. These elements have the ability to move within host genome, and their insertion can cause a wide spectrum of mutations in their hosts. This study aims to decipher the TEs in P. psidii genome by combining in silico and molecular tools. P. psidii MF-1 TEs classification was performed automatically, through RepeatMasker software, being observed a predominance of Class I - LTR Retrotransposons in P. psidii MF-1 genome. This result is consistent with the TEs composition described in phytopathogenic fungi. Some in silico analysis, as integrity and manual annotation of conserved protein sequences from TEs were carried out with P. psidii MF-1 contigs classified as transposable elements. The presence of conserved sequences belonging to pol region in LTR Retrotransposons was observed. Furthermore, these analysis allowed the inference of hybrid TEs in P. psidii MF-1. At the same time, a comparative analysis of TEs present in other Puccinia genomes and P. psidii MF-1 was also performed. The P. graminis, P. striiformis and P. triticina genomes have higher frequency of Class II - DNA Transposons unlike the results found for P. psidii. Interestingly, the number of unknown elements was similarly high for all genomes. This type of analysis is very importante because it shows a great number of potential new TEs families to be discovered. They may be potentially related to the virulence gene silencing of these pathogens. Using TEs for study the fungal genetic diversity is quite common. The IRAP technique was used to access the diversity among P. psidii populations originated from three Eucalyptus spp. hybrids, guava, syzigium and jabuticaba. However, this technique was not efficient to detect existing polymorphisms between these populations. TEs annotation was labored due to the existence of overlapping elements, which may represent hybrids TEs. PCR tool was used to confirm some sequences annotated as hybrids and more studies are needed to confirm this hyphotesis. The results presented in this study are novel and is a crucial step in understanding the genetic of P. psidii pathogen for further improvements of rust control mechanisms.

The aim of this study was to provide deeper insights in passerine phylogenetic relationships using new molecular markers. The monophyly of the largest avian order Passeriformes (~59% of all living birds) and the division into its suborders suboscines and oscines are well established. Phylogenetic relationships within the group have been extremely puzzling, as most of the evolutionary lineages originated through rapid radiation. Numerous studies have hypothesised conflicting passerine phylogenies and have repeatedly stimulated further research with new markers. In the present study, I used three different approaches to contribute to the ongoing phylogenetic debate in Passeriformes. I investigated the recently introduced gene ZENK for its phylogenetic utility for passerine systematics in combination and comparison to three already established nuclear markers. My phylogenetic analyses of a comprehensive data set yielded highly resolved, consistent and strongly supported trees. I was able to show the high utility of ZENK for elucidating phylogenetic relationships within Passeriformes. For the second and third approach, I used chicken repeat 1 (CR1) retrotransposons as phylogenetic markers. I presented two specific CR1 insertions as apomorphic characters, whose presence/absence pattern significantly contributed to the resolution of a particular phylogenetic uncertainty, namely the position of the rockfowl species Picathartes spp. in the passerine tree. Based on my results, I suggest a closer relationship of these birds to crows, ravens, jays, and allies. For the third approach, I showed that CR1 sequences contain phylogenetic signal and investigated their applicability in more detail. In this context, I screened for CR1 elements in different passerine birds, used sequences of several loci to construct phylogenetic trees, and evaluated their reliability. I was able to corroborate existing hypotheses and provide strong evidence for some new hypotheses, e.g. I suggest a revision of the taxa Corvidae and Corvinae as vireos are closer related to crows, ravens, and allies. The subdivision of the Passerida into three superfamilies, Sylvioidea, Passeroidea, and Muscicapoidea was strongly supported. I found evidence for a split within Sylvioidea into two clades, one consisting of tits and the other comprising warblers, bulbuls, laughingthrushes, whitethroats, and allies. Whereas Passeridae appear to be paraphyletic, monophyly of weavers and estrild finches as a separate clade was strongly supported. The sister taxon relationships of dippers and the thrushes/flycatcher/chat assemblage was corroborated and I suggest a closer relationship of waxwings and kinglets to wrens, tree-creepers, and nuthatches. / Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, mittels neuer molekularer Marker zusätzliche Informationen über die phylogenetischen Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der Sperlingsvögel (Passeriformes) zu erhalten. Die Monophylie der Passeriformes, der größten Vogelgruppe (~59% aller lebenden Arten), sowie ihrer Unterteilung in Suboscines und Oscines sind gut belegt. Die phylogenetischen Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse innerhalb dieser Gruppen sind jedoch seit jeher sehr schwer zu entschlüsseln, da sich die meisten Linien durch eine schnelle Radiation entwickelten. Zahlreiche Studien haben verschiedene Hypothesen zur Phylogenie der Sperlingsvögel aufgestellt und damit die Suche nach neuen Markern initiiert. In meiner Untersuchung habe ich drei verschiedene Ansätze benutzt, um zur Klärung der Phylogenie beizutragen. Ich untersuchte das kürzlich als Marker eingeführte ZENK-Gen im Hinblick auf seinen Nutzen in der Systematik der Sperlingsvögel in Kombination und im Vergleich zu drei bereits etablierten nukleären Markern. Meine phylogenetischen Analysen eines umfassenden Datensatzes ergaben hoch aufgelöste, konsistente und stark unterstütze Stammbäume, so dass ich den hohen Nutzwert des ZENK-Gens für die Klärung phylogenetischer Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der Passeriformes zeigen konnte. Für den zweiten und dritten Ansatz habe ich Chicken Repeat 1 (CR1) Retrotransposons als phylogenetische Marker benutzt. Anhand zweier spezifischer CR1 Insertionen als apomorphe Merkmale und deren Insertionsmuster in verschiedenen Sperlingsvögeln konnte ich die phylogenetische Position der afrikanischen Felshüpfer, Picathartes spp., klären. Aufgrund meiner Ergebnisse schließe ich auf eine engere Verwandtschaft der Felshüpfer zu den Rabenvögeln. Durch meinen dritten Ansatz konnte ich nachweisen, dass CR1-Sequenzen phylogenetische Informationen enthalten, und untersuchte detailliert deren Anwendung als Marker. Dafür habe ich in verschiedenen Sperlingsvögeln nach CR1 Elementen gesucht und mit einigen dieser Sequenzen Stammbäume berechnet, um die Verlässlichkeit der Marker zu überprüfen. Durch meine Untersuchungen konnte ich existierende Hypothesen stützen und zusätzlich starke Hinweise auf neue Hypothesen finden. Beispielsweise schlage ich eine Revision der Taxa Corvidae und Corvinae vor, da Vireos eng mit den Rabenvögeln verwandt sind. Die Unterteilung der Passerida in die drei Unterfamilien Sylvioidea, Passeroidea und Muscicapoidea konnte deutlich bestätigt werden. Ich habe Hinweise auf eine Trennung der Sylvioidea in zwei taxonomische Gruppen erhalten, einer bestehend aus Meisen und Verwandten und der andere aus Grasmücken, Bülbüls, Häherlingen, Brillenvögeln und Verwandten. Während die Passeridae paraphyletisch sind, wurde die Monophylie der Weber und Astrilden als ein eigenes Taxon unterstützt. Das Schwestergruppenverhältnis zwischen Wasseramseln und dem Drossel/Fliegenschnäpper/Schmätzer-Taxon wurde ebenfalls bestätigt. Außerdem habe ich Hinweise auf eine nähere Verwandtschaft zwischen Seidenschwänzen und Goldhähnchen zu Zaunkönigen, Baumläufern und Kleibern gefunden.

Submitted by Alisson Mota (alisson.davidbeckam@gmail.com) on 2015-07-15T20:56:37Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Ana Mara Oliveira da Silva.pdf: 1079315 bytes, checksum: 9670391d445166cd6d29c8f86059974b (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2015-07-16T15:55:23Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Ana Mara Oliveira da Silva.pdf: 1079315 bytes, checksum: 9670391d445166cd6d29c8f86059974b (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2015-07-16T15:53:16Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Ana Mara Oliveira da Silva.pdf: 1079315 bytes, checksum: 9670391d445166cd6d29c8f86059974b (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2015-07-16T15:58:21Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Ana Mara Oliveira da Silva.pdf: 1079315 bytes, checksum: 9670391d445166cd6d29c8f86059974b (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-07-16T15:58:21Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação - Ana Mara Oliveira da Silva.pdf: 1079315 bytes, checksum: 9670391d445166cd6d29c8f86059974b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-07-09 / CNPq - Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz) performs an important social role as a food source in the tropical world. The germplasm maintained manioc forms the basis for technological exploitation of the species in the development of new cultivars. To be efficiently used require different methods of genetic characterization. Markers based on transposable elements are suitable for genetic analyzes because of their qualities of reproducibility and abundant polymorphism. We used 430 manioc accessions that compose the Embrapa germplasm collected in the Amazon basin. The retrotransposons sequences were located in the Phytozome database, IRAP primers designed with Primer3 program, structuring within the germplasm has been detected by STRUCTURE software v. 2.2 and the genetic diversity was assessed using the Popgen software v1.32. IRAP data to the software STRUCTURE suggested the existence of two gene clusters (k = 2) with 93 and other with 127 varieties of total 430 plants, considering only the fidelity above 80%. The AMOVA for K = 2 showed greater variation within the group (89%) than among groups (11%). The six IRAP primer pairs were informative for assessing genetic diversity, with averages of 96% polymorphism, 0.4 heterozygosity and Shannon index 0.57, however, did not detect structuring within cassava germplasm compared to other assisted structuring markers. / A mandioca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) desempenha importante papel social como fonte de alimentação nas regiões tropicais mundiais. O germoplasma conservado constitui a base para aproveitamento tecnológico da espécie no desenvolvimento de novas cultivares. Para que seja eficientemente utilizado necessita de diferentes métodos de caracterização genética. Os marcadores com base em elementos transponíveis são indicados para análises genéticas devido as suas qualidades de reprodutibilidade e polimorfismo abundante. Foram utilizados 430 acessos de mandioca que compõem o germoplasma da Embrapa, coletados na bacia amazônica. As sequências de retrotransposons foram localizadas no banco de dados do Phytozome, os primers IRAP desenhados com o programa Primer3, a estruturação dentro do germoplasma foi detectada através do software STRUCTURE v 2.2 e a diversidade genética foi avaliada utilizando o software Popgen v1.32. Para os dados de IRAP o software STRUCTURE sugeriu a existência de dois agrupamentos genéticos (K=2) um com 93 e outro com 127 variedades do total de 430 plantas, considerando apenas a fidelidade acima de 80%. A AMOVA para K = 2 revelou mais variação dentro do grupo (89%) que entre os grupos (11%). Os seis pares de primers IRAP foram informativos para avaliar a diversidade genética, com médias de 96% de polimorfismo, 0.4 de heterozigosidade e com índice de Shannon de 0.57, porém, não detectaram estruturação dentro do germoplasma de mandioca comparada com a estruturação assistida por outros marcadores.

A cultura do eucalipto apresenta grande importância no setor florestal no mundo. No Brasil, 70% da área florestal plantada é destinada ao eucalipto. Entretanto, a ferrugem das mirtáceas, também conhecida como ferrugem do eucalipto, causada pelo fungo Puccinia psidii Winter, afeta o enorme potencial produtivo das plantações de eucalipto. A biologia, mecanismos de patogenicidade e genética desse patógeno são pouco conhecidos, apesar de sua importância para o setor florestal. Os elementos transponíveis (TEs) são sequências de DNA com a capacidade de migrar e influenciar a organização, integridade e evolução do genoma hospedeiro. O presente trabalho teve como principal objetivo estudar os TEs presentes no genoma de P. psidii, combinando ferramentas in silico e moleculares. A classificação dos elementos transponíveis no genoma de P. psidii MF-1 foi realizada utilizando contigs previamente minerados e remontados, bem como sem seleção prévia dos contigs, por meio do programa RepeatMasker. Ambas estratégias apontaram o predomínio de elementos da Classe I - LTR Retrotransposons no genoma de P. psidii MF-1. O resultado condiz com a composição de TEs em fungos fitopatogênicos descrita na literatura. Algumas análises in silico, como verificação de integridade e anotação manual de sequências proteicas foram também realizadas para alguns contigs classificados como TEs. Assim, foi possível observar a presença de sequências conservadas pertencentes à região pol em LTR Retrotransposons. Além disso, as análises permitiram inferir sobre a existência de TEs híbridos no genoma parcialmente sequenciado de P. psidii MF-1. Paralelamente foi também realizada uma análise comparativa entre os TEs presentes nos genomas de P. graminis, P. striiformis, P. triticina e P. psidii. Observou-se que P. graminis, P. striiformis e P. triticina apresentam maior frequência de elementos da Classe II, do tipo DNA Transposons ao contrário de P. psidii, com maior frequência de elementos da Classe I. Interessantemente, a quantidade de elementos desconhecidos foi similarmente alta para todos os quatro genomas avaliados. Este tipo de análise é muito importante, pois evidencia a grande quantidade de famílias de TEs novas a serem descobertas. Elas podem estar potencialmente relacionadas ao silenciamento de genes importantes à virulência destes patógenos. A utilização de TEs no estudo de diversidade genética entre populações é bastante comum. A técnica molecular IRAP foi utilizada para acessar a diversidade entre populações de P. psidii originárias de três híbridos de Eucalyptus spp., goiabeira, jambeiro e jabuticabeira. No entanto, esta técnica não se mostrou eficiente para detectar polimorfismos existentes entre estas populações. A anotação de TEs foi difícil devido à observação de sequências de elementos sobrepostas, o que podem representar híbridos de TEs, entretanto, visando a confirmação desta hipótese por meio da PCR, alguns contigs serão sequenciados e mais estudos devem ser realizados para a continuação desta confirmação. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho são inéditos e representam uma etapa crucial no entendimento de TEs em fungos do gênero Puccinia, em especial do patógeno P. psidii para o desenvolvimento de melhores mecanismos de controle de ferrugem. / The culture of eucalyptus has great importance worldwide in forestry sector. In Brazil, 70% of cultivated forest area is intended for Eucalyptus. However, the eucalyptus potential productive has been affected by rust disease, caused by the fungus Puccinia psidii Winter. Despite its importance to brazilian and world forest sector, the knowledge of biology, genetic and pathogenic mechanisms of this pathogen is scarce. Transposable elements (TEs) are mobile DNA fragments that influence the organization and development of the host genome. These elements have the ability to move within host genome, and their insertion can cause a wide spectrum of mutations in their hosts. This study aims to decipher the TEs in P. psidii genome by combining in silico and molecular tools. P. psidii MF-1 TEs classification was performed automatically, through RepeatMasker software, being observed a predominance of Class I - LTR Retrotransposons in P. psidii MF-1 genome. This result is consistent with the TEs composition described in phytopathogenic fungi. Some in silico analysis, as integrity and manual annotation of conserved protein sequences from TEs were carried out with P. psidii MF-1 contigs classified as transposable elements. The presence of conserved sequences belonging to pol region in LTR Retrotransposons was observed. Furthermore, these analysis allowed the inference of hybrid TEs in P. psidii MF-1. At the same time, a comparative analysis of TEs present in other Puccinia genomes and P. psidii MF-1 was also performed. The P. graminis, P. striiformis and P. triticina genomes have higher frequency of Class II - DNA Transposons unlike the results found for P. psidii. Interestingly, the number of unknown elements was similarly high for all genomes. This type of analysis is very importante because it shows a great number of potential new TEs families to be discovered. They may be potentially related to the virulence gene silencing of these pathogens. Using TEs for study the fungal genetic diversity is quite common. The IRAP technique was used to access the diversity among P. psidii populations originated from three Eucalyptus spp. hybrids, guava, syzigium and jabuticaba. However, this technique was not efficient to detect existing polymorphisms between these populations. TEs annotation was labored due to the existence of overlapping elements, which may represent hybrids TEs. PCR tool was used to confirm some sequences annotated as hybrids and more studies are needed to confirm this hyphotesis. The results presented in this study are novel and is a crucial step in understanding the genetic of P. psidii pathogen for further improvements of rust control mechanisms.

The retrotransposon Ylt1 was described previously from the genome of the dimorphic fungus Yarrowia lipolytica. Remarkably, Ylt1 is currently the largest LTR retrotransposon reported from fungal genomes. However, little was known about its biology and its interactions with host genome. So, the aim of this work was the characterization of properties of Ylt1.Analysis of proteins encoded by Ylt1 (Gag protein and integrase) was carried out during this work. To enable their detection, both proteins were tagged with HA epitopes. The sizes of Gag protein and putative precursors of Gag protein and integrase were estimated, and a model for the proteolytic processing of the polyprotein of Ylt1 was proposed. It was shown that Gag protein of Ylt1 is about 2-fold larger than Gag proteins of other studied yeast retrotransposons. An analysis of Ylt1 expression was also performed. Production of the Ylt1 Gag protein under different conditions was analyzed by Western blotting. Expression of Ylt1 occurred on all tested carbon sources. The amount of Ylt1 decreased rapidly upon transition to stationary growth phase, in the presence of copper sulfate and under heat shock conditions. It is suggested that Ylt1 is expressed in actively growing cells, whereas stress conditions have a negative impact on its expression. Such expression pattern was not previously reported for other yeast retrotransposons. Activity of Ylt1 in vivo was characterized using an Ylt1 elements tagged with SUC2 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mobilization of the marked Ylt1 element and its transposition from autonomous plasmid into host genome was observed in performed experiments. Obtained results strongly support the idea that Ylt1 is transpositionally active. Formation of tandem repeats by newly inserted Ylt1 elements was observed in several cases. It is suggested that integrase function was affected in this case, and that the integration was mediated by homologous recombination instead. Analysis of the Ylt1 insertion specificity and of the Ylt1 distribution in the genome of Y. lipolytica E150 was done. The remarkable sequence specificity of Ylt1 insertions, which is unusual for LTR retrotransposons, was revealed during this analysis. Also, it was shown that Ylt1 insertions are found mainly in intergenic regions, often at a significant distance (>500 bp) from the next reading frame. No association of Ylt1 insertions with tRNA genes was observed. Searches for Ylt1-related elements in the Y. lipolytica genome database were performed. The novel Ty3/gypsy element Tyl6 was found in the genome of Y. lipolytica E150. The sequence analysis of this element was carried out. It was shown that structural properties of Tyl6 resemble the properties of the Ty3 element of S. cerevisiae. However, two reading frames of Tyl6 (gag and pol) are separated by -1 frame-shift, which was not previously reported for retrotransposons of hemiascomycetous yeasts. Phylogenetic analysis placed Tyl6 within chromoviruses, and the Tse3 element of S. exiguus was shown to be the closest relative of Tyl6. The distribution of Tyl6 among Y. lipolytica strains was analyzed. Interestingly, the novel element was found only in strains derived from the strain YB423-12. The strains of independent origin included in the analysis were shown to be Tyl6-free. The same distribution was previously reported for the retrotransposon Ylt1 and for the DNA transposon Mutyl. Two models of the evolution of transposable elements in Y. lipolytica genome were proposed based on these results.

The retrotransposon Ylt1 was described previously from the genome of the dimorphic fungus Yarrowia lipolytica. Remarkably, Ylt1 is currently the largest LTR retrotransposon reported from fungal genomes. However, little was known about its biology and its interactions with host genome. So, the aim of this work was the characterization of properties of Ylt1.Analysis of proteins encoded by Ylt1 (Gag protein and integrase) was carried out during this work. To enable their detection, both proteins were tagged with HA epitopes. The sizes of Gag protein and putative precursors of Gag protein and integrase were estimated, and a model for the proteolytic processing of the polyprotein of Ylt1 was proposed. It was shown that Gag protein of Ylt1 is about 2-fold larger than Gag proteins of other studied yeast retrotransposons. An analysis of Ylt1 expression was also performed. Production of the Ylt1 Gag protein under different conditions was analyzed by Western blotting. Expression of Ylt1 occurred on all tested carbon sources. The amount of Ylt1 decreased rapidly upon transition to stationary growth phase, in the presence of copper sulfate and under heat shock conditions. It is suggested that Ylt1 is expressed in actively growing cells, whereas stress conditions have a negative impact on its expression. Such expression pattern was not previously reported for other yeast retrotransposons. Activity of Ylt1 in vivo was characterized using an Ylt1 elements tagged with SUC2 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mobilization of the marked Ylt1 element and its transposition from autonomous plasmid into host genome was observed in performed experiments. Obtained results strongly support the idea that Ylt1 is transpositionally active. Formation of tandem repeats by newly inserted Ylt1 elements was observed in several cases. It is suggested that integrase function was affected in this case, and that the integration was mediated by homologous recombination instead. Analysis of the Ylt1 insertion specificity and of the Ylt1 distribution in the genome of Y. lipolytica E150 was done. The remarkable sequence specificity of Ylt1 insertions, which is unusual for LTR retrotransposons, was revealed during this analysis. Also, it was shown that Ylt1 insertions are found mainly in intergenic regions, often at a significant distance (>500 bp) from the next reading frame. No association of Ylt1 insertions with tRNA genes was observed. Searches for Ylt1-related elements in the Y. lipolytica genome database were performed. The novel Ty3/gypsy element Tyl6 was found in the genome of Y. lipolytica E150. The sequence analysis of this element was carried out. It was shown that structural properties of Tyl6 resemble the properties of the Ty3 element of S. cerevisiae. However, two reading frames of Tyl6 (gag and pol) are separated by -1 frame-shift, which was not previously reported for retrotransposons of hemiascomycetous yeasts. Phylogenetic analysis placed Tyl6 within chromoviruses, and the Tse3 element of S. exiguus was shown to be the closest relative of Tyl6. The distribution of Tyl6 among Y. lipolytica strains was analyzed. Interestingly, the novel element was found only in strains derived from the strain YB423-12. The strains of independent origin included in the analysis were shown to be Tyl6-free. The same distribution was previously reported for the retrotransposon Ylt1 and for the DNA transposon Mutyl. Two models of the evolution of transposable elements in Y. lipolytica genome were proposed based on these results.

Background: Long terminal repeats (LTRs, consisting of U3-R-U5 portions) are important elements of retroviruses and related retrotransposons. They are difficult to analyse due to their variability. The aim was to obtain a more comprehensive view of structure, diversity and phylogeny of LTRs than hitherto possible. Results: Hidden Markov models (HMM) were created for 11 clades of LTRs belonging to Retroviridae (class III retroviruses), animal Metaviridae (Gypsy/Ty3) elements and plant Pseudoviridae (Copia/Ty1) elements, complementing our work with Orthoretrovirus HMMs. The great variation in LTR length of plant Metaviridae and the few divergent animal Pseudoviridae prevented building HMMs from both of these groups. Animal Metaviridae LTRs had the same conserved motifs as retroviral LTRs, confirming that the two groups are closely related. The conserved motifs were the short inverted repeats (SIRs), integrase recognition signals (5' TGTTRNR ... YNYAACA 3'); the polyadenylation signal or AATAAA motif; a GT-rich stretch downstream of the polyadenylation signal; and a less conserved AT-rich stretch corresponding to the core promoter element, the TATA box. Plant Pseudoviridae LTRs differed slightly in having a conserved TATA-box, TATATA, but no conserved polyadenylation signal, plus a much shorter R region. The sensitivity of the HMMs for detection in genomic sequences was around 50% for most models, at a relatively high specificity, suitable for genome screening. The HMMs yielded consensus sequences, which were aligned by creating an HMM model (a 'Superviterbi' alignment). This yielded a phylogenetic tree that was compared with a Pol-based tree. Both LTR and Pol trees supported monophyly of retroviruses. In both, Pseudoviridae was ancestral to all other LTR retrotransposons. However, the LTR trees showed the chromovirus portion of Metaviridae clustering together with Pseudoviridae, dividing Metaviridae into two portions with distinct phylogeny. Conclusion: The HMMs clearly demonstrated a unitary conserved structure of LTRs, supporting that they arose once during evolution. We attempted to follow the evolution of LTRs by tracing their functional foundations, that is, acquisition of RNAse H, a combined promoter/polyadenylation site, integrase, hairpin priming and the primer binding site (PBS). Available information did not support a simple evolutionary chain of events.

Low to moderate level of chronic arsenic exposure contributes to cardiovascular ailments including heart disease and aneurysms. Current research on the etiology and progression of cardiovascular disease focuses mainly on adult which fails to capture the developmental origins of cardiovascular disease. Thus, disruption in morphogenetic events during early development may initiate and pattern the molecular programming of cardiovascular ailments in adulthood. A major contributor to ischemic heart pathologies is coronary artery disease, however the influences by environmental arsenic in this disease process are not known. Similarly, the impact of toxicants on blood vessel formation and function during development has not been studied. Coronary vessel development is initiated by precursor cells that are derived from the epicardium. Epicardial derived cells undergo proliferate, migrate, and differentiate into several cardiac cell types which are the cellular components of the coronary vessels. The key cellular event occurs in this process is the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), which can also be utilized by endocardial cushion cells to form aortic and pulmonary valves. The TGFβ family of ligands and receptors are essential for developmental cardiac EMT and coronary smooth muscle cell differentiation. Whether arsenic has any impact on TGFβ mediated cardiovasculogenesis is not known. Monomethylarsonous acid [MMA(III)] is the most potent metabolite of inorganic arsenic and has been shown to partly account for arsenic induced toxicity. The fetus is exposed to relatively higher levels of MMA (III) as compared to adults probably due to deficiency in methylation of transferred inorganic arsenic from the placenta. However, the developmental toxicity of MMA (III) has not yet been studied. In this study, we exploit a novel cardiac progenitor cell line to recapitulate epicardial EMT in vitro and to study developmental toxicity caused by arsenicals. We show that chronic exposure to low level of arsenite and MMA (III) disrupts developmental EMT programming in epicardial cells causing deficits in cardiac mesenchyme production. The expression of EMT program genes is also decreased in a dose-dependent manner following exposure to arsenite and MMA (III). Smad-dependent TGFβ2 canonical signaling and the non-canonical Erk signaling pathways are abrogated as detected by decreases in phosphorylated Smad2/3, Erk1/2 and Erk5 proteins. There is also loss of nuclear accumulation of p-Smad and p-Erk5 due to arsenical exposure. These observations coincide with a decrease in vimentin positive mesenchymal cells invading three-dimensional collagen gels. However, arsenicals do not block TGFβ2 stimulated p38 activation. Additionally, smooth muscle cell differentiation, which is proven to be governed by p38 signaling in epicardial cells, also remains intact with arsenical exposure. Overall these results show that arsenite and MMA (III) are strong and selective cardiac silencers. The molecular mechanisms of arsenical toxicity on TGFβ-Smad signaling in epicardial cells is further explored. A relatively high level of acute arsenical exposure rapidly depletes phosphorylated nuclear Smad2/3. Restoration of the nuclear accumulation of Smads can be achieved by inhibiting the expression or activation of Smad specific exportins suggesting that arsenicals augment Smad nuclear exportation. Abrogated Smad signaling caused by arsenicals is associated with severe deficits in EMT during mouse epicardium and chick endocardial cushion development. Thus progenitor cell outgrowth, migration, invasion and vimentin filament reorganization are significantly inhibited in response to arsenical exposure. Disrupted Smad nuclear shuffling is probably caused by zinc displacement on the MH-1 DNA binding domain of Smad2/3. Thus zinc supplementation restores both nuclear content and transcriptional activities of Smad2/3. Rescued TGFβ-Smad signaling by zinc also contributes to cellular transformation and mesenchyme production in embryonic heart explants. LINE1 (L1) retrotransposons are a group of mobile DNA elements that shape the genome via novel epigenetic controls. Although expression of L1 is required for early embryo implantation and development, abnormally elevated L1 is shown to inhibit embryonic cells from transforming and differentiating during organogenesis. Cellular redox signaling, which is regulated by antioxidant responsive elements (AREs), has been shown to play a key role in L1 activation and retrotransposition. However, whether L1 can be induced by the cellular oxidative stress caused by arsenic is not known. We provide evidence showing that L1 ORF-1 and ORF-2 mRNA levels are both up-regulated by arsenic. Nuclear accumulation of L1 ORF-2 is observed in response to 30 min arsenic exposure, which may lead to active retrotransposition events in the genome. Transcriptional activity of L1 is regulated by Nrf2 as mutations in ARE regions within the L1 promoter and Nrf2 silencing using siRNA both significantly inhibit L1 transcriptional activity. Nrf2 overexpression together with arsenic exposure creates synergic induction in L1 promoter activity suggesting that arsenic mediated L1 activation is partially Nrf2 dependent. Taken together, these findings reveal a molecular mechanism responsible for arsenic cardiac toxicity and define a novel genetic toxic effect of arsenic during embryonic heart development.

Long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposons account for approximately 10% of mouse and 8% of human genomes and may play a role in modifying gene expression. Many species harbor retrotransposon families encompassing both autonomous and non-autonomous members. Specifically, the mouse Early Transposon (ETn) family members lack all retroviral genes but are transcriptionally and retrotranspositionally active, causing over 20 known insertional germline mutations. ETns owe their retrotransposition potential to proteins encoded by structurally intact MusD retrotransposons with whom they share LTRs. ETn elements are transcribed at a much higher level than MusD retrotransposons in embryos and undifferentiated cells, suggesting their evasion of host restriction mechanisms. However, mechanisms responsible for the replicative success of non-autonomous retrotransposon subfamilies over their coding-competent relatives are poorly understood. In the first stage of my research, I analyzed regulatory sequences in an ETn LTR responsible for its high promoter activity in the undifferentiated cell line P19. I found that three GC-boxes that may function as Sp1/Sp3 binding sites act synergistically and are indispensable for undifferentiated cell-specific promoter activity of the LTR. Sp1 binding partners may be responsible for the restricted ETn expression. Moreover, I have shown that unlike many retroviruses, ETn elements possess multiple transcription initiation sites and that they have amplified via intracellular retrotransposition in the P19 teratocarcinoma cell line. In the next step of my research, I performed analysis of epigenetic mechanisms as a means of ERV suppression. Specifically, I showed that in embryonic stem cells, autonomous MusD retrotransposons are epigenetically suppressed to a greater degree than non-autonomous ETn retrotransposons, illustrated by a higher level of DNA methylation and a lower level of active histone modifications. I hypothesize that MusD elements may be silenced by DNA methylation and repressive chromatin spreading into the LTR from the CpG-rich internal retroviral sequence absent in ETn elements. I propose that internal structure largely devoid of high CG content enables ETn elements to evade host-imposed transcriptional repression, contributing to their high mutagenic activity in the mouse germline.

Long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposons account for approximately 10% of mouse and 8% of human genomes and may play a role in modifying gene expression. Many species harbor retrotransposon families encompassing both autonomous and non-autonomous members. Specifically, the mouse Early Transposon (ETn) family members lack all retroviral genes but are transcriptionally and retrotranspositionally active, causing over 20 known insertional germline mutations. ETns owe their retrotransposition potential to proteins encoded by structurally intact MusD retrotransposons with whom they share LTRs. ETn elements are transcribed at a much higher level than MusD retrotransposons in embryos and undifferentiated cells, suggesting their evasion of host restriction mechanisms. However, mechanisms responsible for the replicative success of non-autonomous retrotransposon subfamilies over their coding-competent relatives are poorly understood. In the first stage of my research, I analyzed regulatory sequences in an ETn LTR responsible for its high promoter activity in the undifferentiated cell line P19. I found that three GC-boxes that may function as Sp1/Sp3 binding sites act synergistically and are indispensable for undifferentiated cell-specific promoter activity of the LTR. Sp1 binding partners may be responsible for the restricted ETn expression. Moreover, I have shown that unlike many retroviruses, ETn elements possess multiple transcription initiation sites and that they have amplified via intracellular retrotransposition in the P19 teratocarcinoma cell line. In the next step of my research, I performed analysis of epigenetic mechanisms as a means of ERV suppression. Specifically, I showed that in embryonic stem cells, autonomous MusD retrotransposons are epigenetically suppressed to a greater degree than non-autonomous ETn retrotransposons, illustrated by a higher level of DNA methylation and a lower level of active histone modifications. I hypothesize that MusD elements may be silenced by DNA methylation and repressive chromatin spreading into the LTR from the CpG-rich internal retroviral sequence absent in ETn elements. I propose that internal structure largely devoid of high CG content enables ETn elements to evade host-imposed transcriptional repression, contributing to their high mutagenic activity in the mouse germline.