Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Several areas in Namaqualand are affected by elevated levels of salinity; including the shallow alluvial aquifers along the Buffels River catchment. The chemistry of rainwater that recharges these aquifers has low salt-loads, but the groundwater system is very saline. The shallow alluvial aquifers are an important source of water for several communal areas along the river both for domestic and agricultural purposes. Groundwater is also used for the copper and diamond mining activities along the river. Prior to this study, the sources of salinity to the alluvial aquifers and whether salinity can be remediated has not been determined. Possible salinity sources included seawater intrusion, evaporitic salts dissolution, concentrations by evaporation, deep aquifer brines, dissolution of minerals from the aquifer geology as well as salts from anthropogenic activities (i.e. mining). The source(s) of salinity to the groundwater has been determined using the geochemical as well as the isotopic tracers. The ratios of major ions (i.e. Na/Cl) as well the oxygen (18O), hydrogen (2H), 36Cl/Cl, and 87Sr/86Sr isotopes were used in determining the possible solute sources. In addition to these, the chloride mass balance (CMB) method was used to determine the recharge rates to the alluvial aquifers. Furthermore, the groundwater age of the alluvial aquifers was determined using the tritium (3H) isotope. The groundwater samples have high 87Sr/86Sr ratios, which are in the same ranges as the 87Sr/86Sr ratios in the surrounding granitic rocks indicating water-rock interactions. The 36Cl/Cl ratios are low and indicate the dissolution of old salts. The 18O and 2H stable isotopes of groundwater show an evaporative trend with respect to the LMWL, which indicate that groundwater has been evaporated before or during infiltration. Salinity to the shallow alluvial aquifers was found to be mainly derived from the dissolution of rock mass and concentration by evaporation process. The groundwater is relatively young, but there is mixing between old water recharged prior to bomb testing and recently recharged groundwater in some boreholes. The Chloride mass balance (CMB) method assumes atmospheric chloride is the only source of chloride to the aquifers. However, there is additional chloride to these alluvial aquifers from rock mass dissolution. The estimated recharge rates by CMB method (0.1-3.4mm/a) are therefore underestimated. A simulation model was used to determine the recharge rates based on the annual precipitation that will yield the current measured chloride concentrations in the groundwater. Recharge was found to range from 1-5% of the annual precipitation, which is also low. The CMB method therefore gives significant recharge rate estimates, but they are not accurate and need to be supported by another method. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Geen opsomming beskikbaar.

In this minithesis I have investigated overlapping mandates as a source of management failure in water management in South Africa in general and Eerste River Catchment in particular. I analysed major legislation which deals with water management to find out how duties and responsibilities are apportioned in the various pieces of legislation. I also undertook an exercise of evaluating roles and responsibilities played by various organs of state in water management from national government, Provincial Government of the Western Cape through to local government, in this case the Municipality of Stellenbosch and the City of Cape Town. It emerged that there were a number of areas of overlap, ambiguously defined mandates, conflict and that these were impeding on decision making in water management. In order to test the framework built above, I then applied it in the Plankenbrug River, a tributary of the Eerste River. Through analysis of newspaper clippings over a period of 4 years I was able to reconstruct conflict over ill-defined mandates in the various aspects of the management of the catchment which showed that<br /> there were differences in roles of the different state organs operating in the catchment. Water management conflict emanated from lack of congruence in the various legislation and differences in the interpretation of legislation. The various state organs seem to be aware of the constitutional duty of cooperative government that engenders state organs to work co-operatively in order to meet their developmental mandates. It seems however that the state organs were merely interested to be seen to be in conformity with this duty more than actually solving the issue as this was seen as something to be tackled at a higher level.

In this minithesis I have investigated overlapping mandates as a source of management failure in water management in South Africa in general and Eerste River Catchment in particular. I analysed major legislation which deals with water management to find out how duties and responsibilities are apportioned in the various pieces of legislation. I also undertook an exercise of evaluating roles and responsibilities played by various organs of state in water management from national government, Provincial Government of the Western Cape through to local government, in this case the Municipality of Stellenbosch and the City of Cape Town. It emerged that there were a number of areas of overlap, ambiguously defined mandates, conflict and that these were impeding on decision making in water management. In order to test the framework built above, I then applied it in the Plankenbrug River, a tributary of the Eerste River. Through analysis of newspaper clippings over a period of 4 years I was able to reconstruct conflict over ill-defined mandates in the various aspects of the management of the catchment which showed that<br /> there were differences in roles of the different state organs operating in the catchment. Water management conflict emanated from lack of congruence in the various legislation and differences in the interpretation of legislation. The various state organs seem to be aware of the constitutional duty of cooperative government that engenders state organs to work co-operatively in order to meet their developmental mandates. It seems however that the state organs were merely interested to be seen to be in conformity with this duty more than actually solving the issue as this was seen as something to be tackled at a higher level.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Water quality analysis forms the basis in assessing and monitoring catchments. As urban development continuously increase, pollution sources increase in either point source (wastewater treatment works, industrial effluents) and/or non-point source origin (storm water discharge, domestic pollutants), accumulating pollutants in the environment. It was only recently discovered that certain pollutants have subtle disrupting effects on the endocrine system resulting in health related problems associated with the reproductive system and thyroid system (growth and development) of animals and potentially humans. Natural water resource management proves to include limited biological assays measuring endpoints for cytoxicity, inflammatory activity and endocrine disruption. The broad objective of this study was therefore to include several bioassays, not normally used in municipal (City of Cape Town) monitoring programmes, along with water quality data collected by the City of Cape Town. The Eerste/Kuils River catchment system, Western Cape, under the auspices of the City of Cape Town was chosen, and although this catchment does not contribute to drinking water resources, is subjected to a range of anthropogenic influences (industrial effluents, household wastewater, agricultural runoff). Within the short time-frame available for this study (six months) two months, July (following a dry summer and autumn season) and October (following a wet winter and early spring season) were selected for water quality monitoring. Spatial variation (with relevance to specific point and non-point contamination) among sampling sites were also obtained by choosing several (n=10) along the catchment. Specific aim of the study therefore included: Firstly (Chapter 2), the use of in vitro bioassays, lactate-dehydrolises assay (LDH) for cytotoxic activity, pro-inflammatory hormone Interleukin-6 (IL-6) secretion by human blood cells and a specific Salmonella ELISA for faecal contamination, in conjunction with routine chemical and biological (mostly microbiological) monitoring activities. The study indicated significant variation among sites in all microbiological measures as well in IL-6 secretion and Salmonella presence. Between months, variations were also evident in certain variables. Secondly (Chapter 3), two bioassays using the yolk precursor protein, vitellogenin (Vtg) as endpoint was implemented in a) an in vitro Xenopus laevis liver slice assay (five day exposure) and b) an in vivo Zebrafish (Danio rerio) bioassay (seven day exposure) assessing estrogenic activity in the Eerste/Kuils River catchment. Although estrogen spiked positive control water samples stimulated Vtg production in vitro as well as in vivo, no dramatic estrogenic activity was measured at any of the selected sites. Thirdly (Chapter 4), a bioassay using the thyroid controlled metamorphosis in Xenopus laevis tadpoles to assess effects on the thyroid hormonal system was implemented. Thyroid stimulatory activity, compared with a negative control sample, was measured at two sites along the catchment. Although the practical implementation of the tadpole semi-static exposure protocol (water replacement) proved to be labour intensive, all the added bioassays proved to be valuable tools to add valuable information regarding water quality. It is clear that more research related to anthropogenic influences along the Eerste/Kuils River catchment system are needed, specifically in monitoring monthly variations to better understand annual variation in several of the endpoints studied. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Waterkwaliteit vorm die basis vir die evaluering en monitering van opvangsgebiede. Voortdurende stedelike ontwikkeling gee aanleiding tot ‘n toename in die voorkoms van besoedelstowwe in die natuurlike omgewing deur gelokaliseerde (punt) bronne (rioolwerke/industriële uitvloeisel) en/of nie gelokaliseerde (nie punt) bronne (vloed uitlaat/huishoudelike uitvloeisels) van besoedeling. Dit het onlangs aan die lig gekom dat van hierdie chemise besoedelstowwe subtiel die endokriene sisteem versteur en so aanleiding gee tot gesondheidsprobleme in terme van die voortplantingsisteem en tiroied sisteem (groei en ontwikkeling) by diere en moontlik ook die mens. Daar is beperkte gebruik van biologiese toetse wat inligting verskaf oor sitotoksiteit, inflammatoriese aktiwiteit en endokriene versteuring. Die doel van hierdie studie was dus om van hierdie biologiese toetse, wat normaalweg nie deel uitmaak van die roetine munisipale (Stad van Kaapstad) opvangsgebied monitering nie, gebruik te maak. Die Eerste-, Kuilsrivier, Wes Kaap, onder beheer van Stad Kaapstad is gekies en alhoewel die opvangsgebied nie water bydra tot drinkwaterbronne nie, word die opvangsgebied beïnvloed deur verskeie mensgemaakte bronne van besoedeling (afloop vanuit omliggende lanbougebiede). Binne die kort tydsraamwerk van die projek (ses maande) is besluit om twee maande, Julie (volg ‘n droë somer en herfs seisoen) en Oktober (volg ‘n nat winter en vroeë lente seisoen) vir water kwaliteit monitering te kies. Ruimtelike variasie langs die loop van die opvangsgebied is ingesluit deur moniteringspunte (n=10), met in ag name van die potensiële besoedelingsbronne. Spesifieke doelwitte van die projek sluit in: Eerstens (Hoofstuk 2), om die in vitro biotoetse, laktaat hidrolise (LDH) vir sitotoksisiteit, proinflammatoriese hormoon Interleuikin-6 (IL-6) vir inflammatoriese aktiwiteit, vrygestel deur menslike bloedselle en ‘n Salmonella ELISA vir ontlasting besoedeling saam met bestaande chemise en biologiese (hoofsaaklik migrobiologiese) veranderlikes te gebruik. Die studie het getoon dat beduidende variasie in alle mikrobiologiese toetse asook IL-6 vrystelling en Salmonella voorkoms bestaan het tussen versamelpunte. Maandelikse variasie in sekere van die veranderlikes het ook voorgekom. Tweedens (Hoofstuk 3), is twee biotoetse wat die dooiervoorloperproteïen, vitellogeen (Vtg) as eindpunt gebruik geimplimenteer in a) ‘n in vitro Xenopus laevis lewersnit biotoets (vyf dag blootstelling) en b) ‘n in vivo Zebravis (Danio rerio) biotoets (sewe dag blootstelling) om estrogenisiteit in die Eerste-, Kuilsrivier opvangsgebied te evalueer. Alhoewel, die estrogeen behandelde positiewe kontrole water monsters Vtg produksie veroorsaak het in beide die in vitro lewer-kulture en in vivo vistoets, is geen dramatiess estrogeniese aktiwiteit by enige van die moniteringspunte gevind nie. Derdens (Hoofstuk 4), is ‘n biotoets wat die tiroïedbeheerde metamorfose in Xenopus laevis paddavisse gebruik om effekte op die tiroïedsisteem te evalueer. Die differensiële stimulering (versnelling), in vergelyking met ‘n negatiewe kontrole watermonster, van die tiroied sisteem is by twee moniteringspunte in die opvangsgebied waargeneem. Alhoewel die praktiese implementering van die paddavis semi-statiese (water word gereeld vervang) biotoets arbeidsintensief is, het alle bykomstige biotoetse waardevolle bykomstige inligting oor water kwaliteit verskaf wat ‘n belangrike bydrae tot ingeligte bestuursbesluite kan verleen. Dit is duidelik dat meer navorsing int verband met die menslike invloed langs die Eerste-, Kuilsrivier opvangsgebied nodig is, veral met maandlikse monitering vir seisoenale veranderinge.

The problem facing the Tlokwe Local Municipality is that it is Constitutional and legislatively obliged to avoid and/or mitigate the impact of potential disasters within its boundaries, through the effective management of potential disaster risks and disasters. The lack of effective risk management tools is especially concerning in the context of the water catchment management of the Mooi River, which is the main water supply of the Tlokwe local Municipality. The Mooi River is exposed to many potential catchment related hazards that could affect the municipality of which the origins are both anthropogenic and natural. Although, many of the impacts on the catchment arise beyond the boundaries and the control of the municipality, this does not relieve the municipality from the responsibility to develop tools to manage the risks. The aim of the study is to assist in addressing the above stated problem through establishing the requirements for a conceptual model for an effective spatial information system that will assist the municipality in effectively managing the potential disaster risks and disasters that may arise in the Mooi River Catchment area that could impact on the Tlokwe Local Municiaplity. The aim gives rise to three-research questions that are formulated as research objectives that are used to identify the conceptual model requirements. The first is to identify and conceptualise the constitutional and legislative obligations in respect of disaster risk management in general and specifically those governing the disaster disk management in the water catchment area for the Mooi River. The study of this objective not only highlight the constitutional and legal obligations that the local municipality is subject to, but provides legislatives remedies that the local municipality can utilise to assist with disaster risks reduction. The second is to identify and conceptualise the generic hazards that are related to water catchment areas (including the related groundwater compartments) and those specific in the Mooi River catchment area. In this section, potential anthropogenic and natural hazards are listed, a methodology for risk and vulnerability analyses is provided, and a concise study of quaternary catchment C23D is provided. The third is to identify and conceptualize the requirements for an effective conceptual model of GIS for Disaster Risk Management in the Tlokwe Local Municipality. An overview of a GIS is provided. The essential components of a generic information system namely, people, software, hardware, procedures and processes, data and telecommunications or networks are discussed. The information and system requirements cumulating from the analyses of the three research questions, serve as the drivers of the goal, outcomes and transformation process of the system as well as the requirements for the conceptual model. In this section: a comparison of the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC), Framework for Applied Systems Thinking (FAST), problem solving and the phases addressed in this study; the identification of the conceptual model requirements; and a concise systems conceptualisation of an effective GIS is provided. As the, mini-dissertation focuses on the needs for a conceptual model, the additional activities required before the system can be implemented are identified and formulated as recommendation that provide the opportunity for future research. / M Development and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The problem facing the Tlokwe Local Municipality is that it is Constitutional and legislatively obliged to avoid and/or mitigate the impact of potential disasters within its boundaries, through the effective management of potential disaster risks and disasters. The lack of effective risk management tools is especially concerning in the context of the water catchment management of the Mooi River, which is the main water supply of the Tlokwe local Municipality. The Mooi River is exposed to many potential catchment related hazards that could affect the municipality of which the origins are both anthropogenic and natural. Although, many of the impacts on the catchment arise beyond the boundaries and the control of the municipality, this does not relieve the municipality from the responsibility to develop tools to manage the risks. The aim of the study is to assist in addressing the above stated problem through establishing the requirements for a conceptual model for an effective spatial information system that will assist the municipality in effectively managing the potential disaster risks and disasters that may arise in the Mooi River Catchment area that could impact on the Tlokwe Local Municiaplity. The aim gives rise to three-research questions that are formulated as research objectives that are used to identify the conceptual model requirements. The first is to identify and conceptualise the constitutional and legislative obligations in respect of disaster risk management in general and specifically those governing the disaster disk management in the water catchment area for the Mooi River. The study of this objective not only highlight the constitutional and legal obligations that the local municipality is subject to, but provides legislatives remedies that the local municipality can utilise to assist with disaster risks reduction. The second is to identify and conceptualise the generic hazards that are related to water catchment areas (including the related groundwater compartments) and those specific in the Mooi River catchment area. In this section, potential anthropogenic and natural hazards are listed, a methodology for risk and vulnerability analyses is provided, and a concise study of quaternary catchment C23D is provided. The third is to identify and conceptualize the requirements for an effective conceptual model of GIS for Disaster Risk Management in the Tlokwe Local Municipality. An overview of a GIS is provided. The essential components of a generic information system namely, people, software, hardware, procedures and processes, data and telecommunications or networks are discussed. The information and system requirements cumulating from the analyses of the three research questions, serve as the drivers of the goal, outcomes and transformation process of the system as well as the requirements for the conceptual model. In this section: a comparison of the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC), Framework for Applied Systems Thinking (FAST), problem solving and the phases addressed in this study; the identification of the conceptual model requirements; and a concise systems conceptualisation of an effective GIS is provided. As the, mini-dissertation focuses on the needs for a conceptual model, the additional activities required before the system can be implemented are identified and formulated as recommendation that provide the opportunity for future research. / M Development and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Surface water pollution is prevalent in numerous areas of central Roodepoort mainly due to gold mining activities. The surface water quality for the Bosmontspruit, Russell’s Stream and the New Canada Dam was assessed from October 2010 to March 2011. Physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the water were determined for 8 monitoring points and the results obtained were compared with the In-stream water quality guidelines for the Klip River catchment and the South African Water Quality Guidelines. A trend noticed throughout the sampling period was the non-compliance in the levels of total dissolved solids (TDS) and dissolved oxygen. The results indicated that concentrations of iron, aluminium, nickel, manganese and potassium were above the limit across the Bosmontspruit and Russell’s stream. There was also significant evidence of excessive faecal coliform and ammonium pollution in the Bosmontspruit. During the monitoring period it was noted that water from these streams were utilised for crop irrigation, bathing, livestock and human consumption and may pose a health hazard due to poor water quality. / Environmental Sciences / M.Sc. (Environmental Science)

Existing terrestrial carbon accounting models have mainly investigated atmosphere-vegetationsoil stocks and fluxes but have largely ignored the hydrological flux of organic carbon. It is generally assumed that biomass and soil carbon are the only relevant pools in a landscape ecosystem. However, recent findings have suggested that significant amounts of organic carbon can dissolve (dissolved organic carbon or DOC) or particulate (particulate organic carbon or POC) in water and enter the hydrological flux at the catchment scale. A significant quantity of total organic carbon (TOC) sequestered through photosynthesis may be exported from the landscape through the hydrological flux and stored in downstream stocks.¶ This thesis presents a catchment-scale case study investigation into the export of organic carbon through a river system in comparison with carbon that is produced by vegetation through photosynthesis. The Cotter River Catchment was selected as the case study. It is a forested catchment that experienced a major wildfire event in January 2003. The approach is based on an integration of a number of models. The main input data were time series of in-stream carbon measurements and remotely sensed vegetation greenness. The application of models to investigate diffuse chemical substances has dramatically increased in the past few years because of the significant role of hydrology in controlling ecosystem exchange. The research firstly discusses the use of a hydrological simulation model (IHACRES) to analyse organic carbon samples from stream and tributaries in the Cotter River Catchment case study. The IHACRES rainfall-runoff model and a regionalization method are used to estimate stream-flow for the 75 sub-catchments. The simulated streamflow data were used to calculate organic carbon loads from concentrations sampled at five locations in the catchment.¶ The gross primary productivity (GPP) of the vegetation cover in the catchment was estimated using a radiation use efficiency (RUE) model driven by MODIS TERRA data on vegetation greenness and modeled surface irradiance (RS). The relationship between total organic carbon discharged in-stream and total carbon uptake by plants was assessed using a cross-correlation analysis.¶ The IHACRES rainfall-runoff model was successfully calibrated at three gauged sites and performed well. The results of the calibration procedure were used in the regionalization method that enabled streamflow to be estimated at ungauged locations including the seven sampling sites and the 75 sub-catchment areas. The IHACRES modelling approach was found appropriate for investigating a wide range of issues related to the hydrological export of organic carbon at the catchment scale. A weekly sampling program was implemented to provide estimates of TOC, DOC and POC concentrations in the Cotter River Catchment between July 2003 and June 2004. The organic carbon load was estimated using an averaging method.¶ The rate of photosynthesis by vegetation (GPP) was successfully estimated using the radiation use efficiency model to discern general patterns of vegetation productivity at sub-catchment scales. This analysis required detailed spatial resolution of the GPP across the entire catchment area (comprising 75 sub-catchment areas) in addition to the sampling locations. Important factors that varied at the catchment scale during the sampling period July 2003 – June 2004, particularly the wildfire impacts, were also considered in this assessment. ¶ The results of the hydrologic modelling approach and terrestrial GPP outcome were compared using cross correlation and regression analysis. This comparison revealed the likely proportion of catchment GPP that contributes to in-stream hydrological flux of organic carbon. TOC Load was 0.45% of GPP and 22.5 - 25% of litter layer. As a result of this investigation and giving due consideration to the uncertainties in the approach, it can be concluded that the hydrological flux of organic carbon in a forested catchment is a function of gross primary productivity.

The study presents the spatio-temporal assessment of groundwater-surface water (GW-SW) interaction aspects in the Schoonspruit River catchment, North West of South Africa. The research study aimed at improving understanding of groundwater and surface water interaction through assessing its location and time when such interaction occurs. GW-SW interaction sites were identified using principal aquifer type characterization methods. The occurrence of the interaction was established using hydrochemistry methods and the effectiveness of the existing monitoring methods were evaluated in their consideration of GW-SW interaction within the study area. The main results from the study showed that there was GW-SW interaction in the Schoonspruit River catchment which was not affected by seasonal changes. The result further showed that existing monitoring methods in the study catchment were not effective in addressing GW-SW interaction. The study concluded that qualitative methods are essential in studying GW-SW interaction and that monitoring methods for such interactions are required / Centre for Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

The Matlabas mire, an actively peat accumulating wetland, is located in the headwaters of the Matlabas River, Marakele National Park, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Various seepage zones and artesian peat domes are contained in this peatland that consists of two tributaries of which the western one is partially channelled. The occurrence of decaying peat domes and desiccated areas with terrestrial vegetation, as well as the apparent erosion on the western tributary, have raised concerns on the health of this wetland. A network of piezometers was installed in the mire and results confirm that the system is fed primarily from seepage from the slopes of the catchment. Chemical analysis and temperature recorded indicate an isolated groundwater source of which the water does not mix with surface water. This is linked with isotope analysis of the age of peat in various sections of the mire. Erosion was attributed to anthropogenic changes in the catchment. Management recommendations include rehabilitation and reinstating the driving forces that support the mire. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)