Beside the point of whether the country is developed or underdeveloped, energy crisis is a common scene all over the world. In order to balance energy supply and demand, either one has to increase the supply or decrease the demand. The latter seems to be the better choice since we have limited sources of energy. About 20% - 40% of energy produced by a country is being consumed by HVACs in buildings. Hence much e ort is towards energy conservation in buildings. Around 30% of the building energy consumption in India is due to cooling load. Previous studies have shown that around 60% of the heat due to solar radiation enters through the roof of the building. The present work aims to reduce the heat load entering through the roof by coming up with a better roofing technique for moderate climatic regions. In the present work, enclosures with the side walls and the floor (bottom slab) insulated has been studied both numerically and experimentally. Heat transfer between the ambient and enclosure is only through the roof (top slab). Six common roofing types have been studied in this thesis. Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) roof Mangalore tile roof Thatched roof GI Sheet roof and Concrete roof with lawn (green roof) Concrete roof with a layer of wet sand The experimental studies have been carried out to understand heat transfer through these roofs. A comparative study of all six types of roofs has been done. Apart from this, the effect of a shade net on room models with bare RCC roof and GI sheet roof is also studied and presented in this thesis. Each enclosure has a height of 0.3m and the sides are 1m in size. Mangalore tile and thatched roofs are inclined to the horizontal. To understand the heat flow process, the temperature variations of different surfaces and enclosure air, and, air temperatures near the top and bottom slabs were recorded. In addition, weather conditions such as solar radiation, ambient air temperature, and wind speed are recorded. The details of the experimental set up are given in chapter 3. In chapter 2, a mathematical model to determine the temperature variations in the enclosure is given. All the three modes of heat transfer (conduction, convection and radiation) are present and the system is unsteady. The objective is to find the temperatures of the walls and the enclosure air temperature. Heat flows either from surroundings to the enclosure or from enclosure to the surroundings through the walls of the enclosure. As the solar radiation data is known for a given location, un-steady heat conduction equation is solved for the walls of the enclosure with heat flux boundary conditions to solve for the temperatures. Standard correlations have been used for calculating the convective heat transfer to the ambient and in the enclosure. Most importantly, the experiments conducted were field experiments. The main objective of the study had been to understand the effect of roof on thermal comfort conditions inside the scaled model rooms under five different weather conditions which are commonly observed in warm tropics: (1)summer, (2)winter, (3)cloudy, (4)unsteady, and, (5)rainy. The details of weather conditions have been discussed in chapter 4. In the present analysis, various issues were looked upon such as, temperature values, time lag, thermo-physical properties of the roof material, weather conditions, average over a 24 hours cycle etc. For the comparative analysis, bare RCC roof has been assumed to the base case as most of the buildings are built with RCC roof (for example, in India, around 29% of the buildings have RCC roof, as per 2011 census). On one side we have passive cooling techniques (lawn over RCC roof and wet sand over RCC roof), and, on the other side we have breathing roofs (Mangalore tile roof and thatched roof). Apart from these, the GI sheet roof is commonly used for small scale industries and residential houses. It has been observed that the concrete roof with lawn (hereafter called as lawn over RCC roof ) being the best one among the considered six roofs. Having lawn over RCC roof could result reduction in both solar gain and the diurnal variation of enclosure inside temperatures. The range of temperature variation was least disturbed due to change in weather conditions. In the case of wet sand over RCC roof, the diurnal variations of enclosure inside temperatures were relatively higher as compared with those in the lawn over RCC roof case. As far as breathing roofs are concerned, the two were found to be better than bare RCC roof with thermal comfort as point of view. On the other hand, breathing effects are found to be better in case of Mangalore tile roof than in case of thatched roof. GI sheet roof was found to be the worst among considered for thermal comfort. The effect of using shade net over RCC and GI sheet roof proves to have good potential to reduce cooling load with negligible adverse effects during night time. Detailed discussion of results has been done in chapter 4. Numerical simulations have been carried out for the case of model room with bare RCC roof. A comparative analysis of both experimental and numerical results has been discussed in chapter 5. The important conclusions are discussed in chapter 6.

With over half the world's population now living in cities, urban areas represent one of earth's few ecosystems that are increasing in extent, and are sites of altered biogeochemical cycles, habitat fragmentation, and changes in biodiversity. However, urban green spaces, including green roofs, can also provide important pools of biodiversity and contribute to regional gamma diversity, while novel species assemblages can enhance some ecosystem services. Green roofs may also mitigate species loss in urban areas and have been shown to support a surprising diversity of invertebrates, including rare and endangered species. In the first part of this study I reviewed the literature on urban invertebrate communities and diversity to better understand the role of green roofs in providing habitat in the context of the larger urban mosaic. My review concluded that, while other factors such as surrounding land use and connectivity are also important to specific invertebrate taxa, local habitat variables contribute substantially to the structure and diversity of urban invertebrate communities. The importance of local habitat variables in urban green spaces and strong support for the habitat complexity hypothesis in a number of other ecosystems has led to proposals that "biodiverse" roofs--those intentionally designed with varied substrate depth, greater plant diversity, or added elements such as logs or stones--would support greater invertebrate diversity, but there is currently limited peer reviewed data to support this. In order to address the habitat complexity hypothesis in the context of green roofs, in the second part of this study I surveyed three roofs designed primarily for stormwater management, three biodiverse roofs, and five ground-level green spaces, from March until September of 2014 in the Portland metropolitan area. Beetles (Coleoptera) were sampled bi-weekly as representatives of total species diversity. Biodiverse roofs had greater richness, abundance, and diversity of beetle species compared to stormwater roofs, but were not more diverse than ground sites. Both biodiverse roofs and ground sites had approximately 20% native beetle species while stormwater roofs had only 5%. Functional diversity was also higher on biodiverse roofs with an average of seven trophic groups represented, while stormwater roofs averaged only three. Ground sites, biodiverse roofs, and stormwater roofs each grouped distinctively in terms of beetle community composition and biodiverse roof communities were found to be positively correlated with roof age, percent plant cover, average plant height, and plant species richness. These results support the findings of previous studies on the importance of local variables in structuring urban invertebrate communities and suggest that biodiverse design can reliably increase greenroof diversity, with the caution that they remain no replacement for ground level conservation.

A presente pesquisa teve como objetivo principal analisar experimentalmente o comportamento térmico de um sistema de cobertura verde leve (CVL) e, também, comparar o comportamento térmico entre os diferentes sistemas de cobertura, frente aos ganhos térmicos no período de transição entre as estações primavera-verão, na cidade de São Carlos-SP. Os sistemas de cobertura em análise foram: 1) aço galvanizado, 2) telha de fibrocimento, 3) laje pré-moldada cerâmica, 4) telha cerâmica e 5) cobertura verde leve (CVL). A CVL caracteriza-se por um sistema construtivo que possui laje pré-moldada cerâmica impermeabilizada com resina poliuretana vegetal, geomanta tridimensional leve e flexível para drenagem, camada reduzida de substrato e grama em sua superfície. As vantagens em relação à utilização das coberturas verdes, em geral, estão relacionadas à regulação de temperaturas, a melhora na eficiência energética das edificações, a capacidade de retenção das águas pluviais, ao aumento das áreas verdes, a atenuação dos efeitos das ilhas de calor, além da contribuição estética e social no ambiente urbano. A metodologia adotada baseou-se na definição do dia típico experimental e nos parâmetros da inércia térmica aplicados aos componentes construtivos da cobertura. As medições experimentais foram realizadas em células de teste no canteiro experimental da Universidade de São Paulo (USP), pelo grupo de ecotecnologias: novos materiais e procedimentos. Foram armazenados em um sistema de aquisição automática de dados, registros referentes às temperaturas do ar externo e interno às células de teste e da temperatura superficial interna dos sistemas de cobertura. Como resultado, a CVL apresentou um bom comportamento no que se refere à atenuação das variações de temperaturas internas à edificação, frente às temperaturas do ar externo. Obteve, também, a menor temperatura superficial na face interna do sistema de cobertura, quando comparada aos outros sistemas construtivos. Por tanto, conclui-se que a CVL constitui-se de alternativa viável para construção, devido a sua capacidade de amortecimento e atraso do fluxo térmico (inércia térmica), contribuindo com o estabelecimento de temperaturas internas mais amenas e, além disso, por fundamentar-se em preceitos de uma arquitetura de maior consonância com o ambiente natural. / The present research main objective was to experimentally analyze the thermal behavior of an extensive green roof system and also to compare different roof system thermal behavior, considering their thermal profits in the period of transition between the stations spring-summer, in the city of São Carlos-SP. The roof systems analyzed were: 1) galvanized steel, 2) earth flax, 3) paving-stone, 4) ceramic tile and 5) extensive green roof. The extensive green roof can be characterized as a constructive system that holds a waterproofed paving-stone with vegetable resin, a slight and flexible three-dimensional geomat, used for draining, a reduced layer of substratum and grass in its surface. The green roofs advantages are mainly related to temperatures regulation, improvement of energy efficiency in constructions, possibility of pluvial waters retention (runoff), increase of green areas, attenuation of heat islands effects, beyond the aesthetic and social contribution for the urban environment. The methodology used was based on the definition of the experimental typical day and the parameters of the thermal inertia applied to the constructive components of the cover. The experimental measurements had been carried in test of cells located in the experimental base of the University of São Paulo (USP), by the group of ecotecnologys: new materials and procedures. They were stored in a system of automatic acquisition of facts, records regarding the temperatures of the internal and external air in the test of cells, and the superficial temperature of the internal roof systems. As a result, the extensive green roof presented a good behavior, considering the attenuation of the construction internal temperatures variations, facing the temperatures of the external air. It presented, also, the lesser superficial temperature of the internal face of the roof system, when compared with the other constructive systems. Therefore, one concludes that the extensive green roof consists of a feasible alternative for construction, due to its capacity of damping and delaying the thermal flow (thermal inertia), contributing to the establishment of pleasant internal temperatures and, moreover, for basing its rules on architecture patterns more sensitive to environmental issues.

El presente proyecto propuso un método experimental de medición de temperaturas internas con el fin de estudiar, comparar y entender la respuesta térmica frente al frío y al calor de cuatro células de ensayo denominadas Control (Sin vegetación) y tres células de ensayo con diferentes combinaciones de vegetación (cubiertas y fachadas) instaladas en una región de clima tropical. En ellas fueron medidas las temperaturas superficiales internas (TSI) y temperaturas del Bulbo Seco (TBS) mediante equipos específicos, un data logger, conectado a dos multiplicadores. Los datos fueron recogidos por un año y dentro de ese periodo fueron seleccionados los días críticos a estudiar. Varios datos climatológicos fueron considerados para abordar la influencia de las oscilaciones del tiempo meteorológico (episodios climáticos) en el ambiente interno construido, para lo cual fueron aplicados fundamentos de la Climatología Dinámica frente al comportamiento térmico de las células de ensayo. Los datos de las principales variables climáticas (radiación solar, humedad relativa y precipitación) fueron registradas en la Estación Meteorológica del CRHEA. Los resultados revelan que la célula de ensayo con vegetación en cubierta y fachadas, presenta más resistencia a las variaciones de temperaturas diarias, es decir, mejor comportamiento térmico, ya que muestra las menores amplitudes térmicas, los mayores retrasos térmicos, las menores temperaturas en días de calor extremo y las mayores en días de frío. Durante el día crítico de calor, las mayores diferencias entre las temperaturas máximas internas del aire, se presentan entre la célula construida con materiales convenciones y la célula que posee fachadas verdes y cubierta vegetal, de 2ºC y en torno a 3ºC en el caso de las temperaturas superficiales. Para el día crítico de frío, la diferencia entre ellas es de 1ºC para los valores de temperatura del aire, y de 2.2ºC para valores de temperaturas superficiales. Así, uso de vegetación en los edificios puede ser considerado una técnica capaz de mantener las condiciones internas más placenteras no solo en épocas calurosas, reduciendo la incidencia de la radiación solar directa, sino también en invierno, debido a su propiedad de aislante térmico que impide las rápidas pérdidas de calor, como ocurre en la célula sin vegetación. Los resultados obtenidos ponen de manifiesto que las hipótesis planteadas fueron alcanzadas, comprobando así, que el uso de vegetación combinado en fachadas y cubiertas contribuye a la mejora del comportamiento térmico, favoreciendo las condiciones térmicas internas en periodos de mayor o menor temperatura externa. / The present research proposed an experimental method for measuring internal temperatures of buildings, in order to study, compare, and understand the thermal response of four test cells against cold and heat, determined: control (without vegetation) and three test cells with different combinations of vegetation (on roofs and/or facades); installed in a tropical climate region. Internal surface temperatures (IST) and dry bulb temperatures (DBT) were measured using appropriate equipment, consisting of a data logger connected to two multipliers. Data were collected for one year and, during that period, the critical days that would be assessed were selected. Climatic data were considered in order to evaluate the influence of weather oscillations (climatic events) on the internal built environment, for which the principles of Dynamic Climatology were applied to understand the thermal behaviour of the test cells. The data obtained from the primary climatic variables (solar radiation, relative humidity, and precipitation) were recorded at the CRHEA. The results showed that the test cell with a green roof and green facades displayed higher resistance to changes in daily temperature, i.e., better thermal behavior, since it faced lower temperature intervals, higher thermal delays, lower temperatures on days of extreme heat, and higher temperatures on cold days. With respect to the critical heat day, the main differences between maximum internal air temperatures occurred between the cell constructed with conventional material and the cell that was built with green facades and a green roof, of 2°C in relation to the internal air temperature, and approximately 3°C with respect to surface temperatures. Regarding the critical cold day, the difference between test cells was of 1°C for air temperature values, and 2.2°C for surface temperature values. Therefore, the use of vegetation in construction can be considered a technique capable of maintaining the most pleasant indoor conditions, not only in hot climates, reducing the incidence of direct solar radiation, but also in the winter, due to thermal insulation properties that prevent the rapid loss of heat, which occurs in cells lacking vegetation. The obtained results show that the initial hypotheses were proven, thus confirming that the application of vegetation on facades and roofs contributes to the improvement of thermal performance, favoring internal thermal conditions during periods of higher or lower external temperatures.

Este trabalho visa desenvolver uma metodologia, através de ferramentas computacionais de simulação, de avaliação de mapas solares para a análise de sombreamentos e da radiação solar incidente sobre as coberturas e telhados das edificações dentro do ambiente urbano e aplicá-la para a cidade de Porto Alegre. Desta forma é possível identificar os melhores espaços para alocar futuras instalações fotovoltaicas e evitar possíveis perdas por sombreamento ao longo do ano. Para tanto, foram selecionadas quatro regiões de estudo, cada uma representando uma tipologia de bairro e edificações. Os bairros Centro Histórico, São Geraldo, São Sebastião e Santana foram selecionados por representarem: edificações comerciais de escritórios, galpões comerciais (depósitos e oficinas), residencial de baixa altura e prédios residenciais, respectivamente. Após o desenvolvimento dos mapas solares, são realizadas estimativas para capacidade de instalação e produção de energia elétrica por sistemas fotovoltaicos em cada edificação. O software EnergyPlus produziu modelos termoenergéticos para quatro edificações típicas representando cada uma das regiões de estudo e, assim, proceder um balanço de energia em escala anual para o consumo energético e a produção de energia. Considerando as hipóteses de simulação e premissas de cálculo utilizadas, verifica-se que existe potencial para a geração distribuída de energia em escala urbana para as regiões de estudo. Um resultado significativo ocorreu para a região do bairro São Geraldo, onde as dez maiores áreas de telhado equivalem a 53% do potencial total de instalação fotovoltaica aplicada a edificações da região de estudo. Ainda, realizado o balanço de energia, foram analisados os cenários de investimento para cada tipologia de edificação típica, resultando em um retorno sobre o investimento entre 9 e 13 anos, dependendo do tipo de edificação. / This work aims to develop a methodology, through computer simulation tools, for evaluating solar maps for shading analysis and incident solar radiation on the building roofs within the urban environment. This methodology is applied in the city of Porto Alegre. Thus, it is possible to identify the best areas to allocate future photovoltaic systems and avoid possible shading losses throughout the year. Therefore were selected four study areas, each one representing one type of neighborhood and respective buildings. The neighborhoods Centro Histórico, São Geraldo, São Sebastião and Santana were selected because they represent: commercial/office buildings, warehouses/workshops, low-rise residential and residential buildings, respectively. After the development of solar maps, estimates were made for the capacity of installation and the electric energy produced by photovoltaic systems in each building roof. The EnergyPlus software produced an energy model for a typical building of each study area (neighborhood) and make an energy balance in annual scale for the energy consumption and energy production. Considering the simulation hypothesis and assumptions, it appears that there is potential for the distributed generation in urban scale for the four study areas. A significant result was found for the São Geraldo region, where only the top ten building roof areas equals to 53% of the total potential of building applied photovoltaic in the respective neighborhood region. Also, performing the energy balance, investment scenarios were analyzed for each typical building, resulting in a return on investment between 9 and 13 years, depending on the building type.

A presente pesquisa teve como objetivo principal analisar experimentalmente o comportamento térmico de um sistema de cobertura verde leve (CVL) e, também, comparar o comportamento térmico entre os diferentes sistemas de cobertura, frente aos ganhos térmicos no período de transição entre as estações primavera-verão, na cidade de São Carlos-SP. Os sistemas de cobertura em análise foram: 1) aço galvanizado, 2) telha de fibrocimento, 3) laje pré-moldada cerâmica, 4) telha cerâmica e 5) cobertura verde leve (CVL). A CVL caracteriza-se por um sistema construtivo que possui laje pré-moldada cerâmica impermeabilizada com resina poliuretana vegetal, geomanta tridimensional leve e flexível para drenagem, camada reduzida de substrato e grama em sua superfície. As vantagens em relação à utilização das coberturas verdes, em geral, estão relacionadas à regulação de temperaturas, a melhora na eficiência energética das edificações, a capacidade de retenção das águas pluviais, ao aumento das áreas verdes, a atenuação dos efeitos das ilhas de calor, além da contribuição estética e social no ambiente urbano. A metodologia adotada baseou-se na definição do dia típico experimental e nos parâmetros da inércia térmica aplicados aos componentes construtivos da cobertura. As medições experimentais foram realizadas em células de teste no canteiro experimental da Universidade de São Paulo (USP), pelo grupo de ecotecnologias: novos materiais e procedimentos. Foram armazenados em um sistema de aquisição automática de dados, registros referentes às temperaturas do ar externo e interno às células de teste e da temperatura superficial interna dos sistemas de cobertura. Como resultado, a CVL apresentou um bom comportamento no que se refere à atenuação das variações de temperaturas internas à edificação, frente às temperaturas do ar externo. Obteve, também, a menor temperatura superficial na face interna do sistema de cobertura, quando comparada aos outros sistemas construtivos. Por tanto, conclui-se que a CVL constitui-se de alternativa viável para construção, devido a sua capacidade de amortecimento e atraso do fluxo térmico (inércia térmica), contribuindo com o estabelecimento de temperaturas internas mais amenas e, além disso, por fundamentar-se em preceitos de uma arquitetura de maior consonância com o ambiente natural. / The present research main objective was to experimentally analyze the thermal behavior of an extensive green roof system and also to compare different roof system thermal behavior, considering their thermal profits in the period of transition between the stations spring-summer, in the city of São Carlos-SP. The roof systems analyzed were: 1) galvanized steel, 2) earth flax, 3) paving-stone, 4) ceramic tile and 5) extensive green roof. The extensive green roof can be characterized as a constructive system that holds a waterproofed paving-stone with vegetable resin, a slight and flexible three-dimensional geomat, used for draining, a reduced layer of substratum and grass in its surface. The green roofs advantages are mainly related to temperatures regulation, improvement of energy efficiency in constructions, possibility of pluvial waters retention (runoff), increase of green areas, attenuation of heat islands effects, beyond the aesthetic and social contribution for the urban environment. The methodology used was based on the definition of the experimental typical day and the parameters of the thermal inertia applied to the constructive components of the cover. The experimental measurements had been carried in test of cells located in the experimental base of the University of São Paulo (USP), by the group of ecotecnologys: new materials and procedures. They were stored in a system of automatic acquisition of facts, records regarding the temperatures of the internal and external air in the test of cells, and the superficial temperature of the internal roof systems. As a result, the extensive green roof presented a good behavior, considering the attenuation of the construction internal temperatures variations, facing the temperatures of the external air. It presented, also, the lesser superficial temperature of the internal face of the roof system, when compared with the other constructive systems. Therefore, one concludes that the extensive green roof consists of a feasible alternative for construction, due to its capacity of damping and delaying the thermal flow (thermal inertia), contributing to the establishment of pleasant internal temperatures and, moreover, for basing its rules on architecture patterns more sensitive to environmental issues.

Expansion och förtätning av städer leder till att såväl areal som andel hårdgjord yta ökar i våra stadsmiljöer. Detta genererar en ökad dagvattenavrinning eftersom regnvattnet inte har samma möjlighet att infiltrera i naturmarker och grönområden. Den ökade mängden dagvatten riskerar att orsaka problem i områden där ledningsnätet dimensionerats för de dagvattenmängder som tidigare varit aktuella. Att utöka ledningsnätets kapacitet är ofta mycket kostsamt och det är därför önskvärt att istället minska belastningen på de befintliga systemen. En allt vanligare metod för detta är att byggnaders takyta bekläds med växter, så kallade gröna tak. De gröna taken har potential att minska den avrunna volymen, fördröja avrinningen och dämpa de maximala flödena. Det råder dock osäkerheter kring hur dessa förmågor påverkas av bland annat olika väderförhållanden och takets vattenmättnadsgrad samt vid olika typer av nederbördshändelser.   Syftet med detta examensarbete var att undersöka möjligheten att simulera avrinningen från gröna tak med hjälp av en befintlig funktion i modelleringsprogrammet SWMM från US Environmental Protection Agency samt med hjälp av Mike Urban från företaget DHI. Ett mål var att sedan använda en av modellerna för att utvärdera hur gröna tak kan påverka belastningen på ett befintligt ledningsnät. Mätdata avseende bland annat nederbörd, avrinning och potentiell avdunstning erhölls från Veg Tech AB och AgroTech A/S. Mätningarna hade utförts vid företagens demonstrationsanläggning i Taastrup, Danmark, och omfattade avrinning från gröna tak med tre olika tjocklekar: 4 cm moss-sedum, 7 cm sedum-ört-gräs och 11 cm sedum-ört-gräs, samt ett hårdgjort referenstak. Inledande dataanalyser av de gröna takens kapacitet visade att takens magasineringskapacitet ökade med en ökad taktjocklek, där de tjockare taken kunde fullständigt magasinera större nederbördshändelser än vad som var fallet för det tunnaste taket. En analys av sambandet mellan nederbördsmängd och avrunnen volym visade ett starkare samband för regn med 60 och 120 minuters varaktighet än vad som var fallet för kortare varaktigheter.   Jämförelser av resultaten hos de båda modelleringsprogrammen visade på olika styrkor och svagheter och ingen av programvarorna gav en i alla avseenden tillfredställande simulering av avrinningen. Mike Urban gav generellt en högre förklaringsgrad men gav alltid en överskattning av den avrunna volymen över en längre tidsperiod. SWMM gav en bättre överensstämmelse med uppmätt avrinning än Mike Urban under de första månaderna av simuleringsperioden, men gav generellt en förskjutning av avrinningsförloppet. För kalibreringen mot 4 cm taktjocklek gav SWMM också en mer korrekt avrunnen långtidsvolym, medan den för de andra konstruktionerna gav liknande resultat som var fallet för Mike Urban. I ett exempel användes en av modellerna för att simulera avrinningen från MAX IV-laboratoriet i Lund. Resultaten visade att det då laboratoriet täckts med gröna tak endast behövdes ett en fjärdedel så stort fördröjningsmagasin för att översvämningar skulle undvikas på ett nedströms beläget fiktivt ledningsnät än vad som var fallet för hårdgjorda tak. / Larger and denser cities result in increasing amounts of impervious surfaces in urban areas. This generates an increase in storm water runoff, as the rainwater is prevented from infiltrating in natural soils and instead flows along the paved surfaces. The increased amount of storm water runoff is liable to cause problems in areas where the storm water system has been designed to handle the amounts of runoff previously generated in the area. Upsizing the capacity of the pipelines is usually costly, and it is therefore desirable to instead reduce the load on the existing system. One way of achieving this is to cover the rooftops with vegetation, so called green roofs. Green roofs are growing in popularity and have the potential to reduce the rate and volume of runoff, as well as attenuating the peak discharge. There are however uncertainties regarding how their abilities are affected by for example the antecedent weather conditions and the moisture content of the roof, as well as by various storm events.   The purpose of this Master’s Thesis was to study the possibility to simulate the runoff from green roofs using an existing function in the modelling software SWMM by US Environmental Protection Agency, and using Mike Urban by the company DHI. An additional objective was to use on of the designed models to evaluate how green roofs can affect the load on an existing storm water system. Measurements of precipitation, runoff and potential evapotranspiration were obtained from Veg Tech AB and AgroTech A/S. The measurements had been carried out at their demonstration site in Taastrup, Denmark, and included runoff from green roofs of three different thicknesses: 4 cm moss-sedum, 7 cm sedum-herb-grass and 11 cm sedum-herb-grass, as well as an impervious roof used as reference. Initial analyses of the data showed that the storage capacity increased with an increased roof thickness. The thicker roofs were able to completely retain the rainfall from larger storm events than what was the case for the thinnest roof. An analysis of the relationship between precipitation depth and runoff volume showed a stronger correlation for rains with 60 and 120 minutes duration than what was the case for shorter durations.   Comparisons of the two models’ performance showed different strengths and weaknesses, and none of the models were able to simulate runoff in a way that was satisfactory in all aspects. Mike Urban generally gave a higher coefficient of determination but consistently overestimated the discharged volume for extended time periods. SWMM gave a better conformity in observed runoff than Mike Urban during the first months of the simulation period, but generally gave a time lag in the runoff hydrograph. For the 4 cm roof calibration, SWMM also gave a more correct long-time runoff volume, while both models performed similarly for the other roof thicknesses. In an example, one of the models was used to simulate the runoff from the MAX IV laboratory in Lund. The results showed that in order to avoid flooding in the fictitious downstream storm water network, there had to be a four times larger detention pond in the case where conventional roofs where used compared to the scenario using green roofs.

The common profiled steel cladding systems used in Australia and its neighboring countries are made of very thin (0.42 mm) high strength steel (G550 with a minimum yield stress of 550 MPa) and are crest-fixed. However, these claddings often suffer from local pull-through failures at their screw connections during high wind events such as storms and cyclones. Past experience and researches have shown that the loss of steel roofs has often occurred due to local pull-through failures of their screw connections under uplift or suction loading. Loss of claddings always led to a progressive collapse of the entire building. This situation is continuing because of the lower priority given to the design of roof and wall cladding systems. At present, steel design codes do not provide guidelines for the design of crest-fixed steel roof or wall claddings. Past research has shown that European and American recommendations for steel claddings cannot be used for Australian crest-fixed cladding systems as they were developed mainly for valley-fixed claddings subjected to gravity loading instead of crest-fixed claddings subjected to wind uplift/suction loading. Therefore at present the design of thin steel cladding systems is based on laboratory tests and is expensive. These situations inhibit the innovative design and advances in the steel cladding industry. Since the local pull-through failures in the less ductile G550 steel claddings are initiated by transverse splitting at the fastener hole, analytical studies have not been able to determine the pull-through failure loads accurately. Therefore in the first stage of this research an appropriate fracture/splitting criterion was developed using a series of large scale and small scale experiments of crest-fixed steel claddings. A shell finite element model of crest-fixed steel cladding was then developed that included the new fracture/splitting criterion and advanced features such as hyperelastic material modelling, contact simulations, residual stresses and geometric imperfections. The improved finite element analyses were able to model the pull-through failures associated with splitting as evident from the comparison of their results with the corresponding full-scale experimental results. An extensive series of parametric studies considering the effects of material properties and geometric parameters of the two commonly used trapezoidal cladding profiles was undertaken using finite element analysis. Appropriate design formulae for the pull-through and dimpling failure load of trapezoidal profiles were then derived for optimization purposes and to simplify the current design method. This will then lead to modification and optimisation of cladding profiles to satisfy the requirements of both strength (safety during cyclones and storms) and economy. This thesis presents the details of large scale experimental studies undertaken and the results including the criterion for the splitting/fracture failure of high strength steel cladding systems. It describes the many advances made in the finite element modelling of crest-fixed steel cladding systems including the effects of localised pull-through and dimpling failures. Finally, it presents a simple design method for trapezoidal steel cladding systems under wind uplift or suction loading.

Este trabalho visa desenvolver uma metodologia, através de ferramentas computacionais de simulação, de avaliação de mapas solares para a análise de sombreamentos e da radiação solar incidente sobre as coberturas e telhados das edificações dentro do ambiente urbano e aplicá-la para a cidade de Porto Alegre. Desta forma é possível identificar os melhores espaços para alocar futuras instalações fotovoltaicas e evitar possíveis perdas por sombreamento ao longo do ano. Para tanto, foram selecionadas quatro regiões de estudo, cada uma representando uma tipologia de bairro e edificações. Os bairros Centro Histórico, São Geraldo, São Sebastião e Santana foram selecionados por representarem: edificações comerciais de escritórios, galpões comerciais (depósitos e oficinas), residencial de baixa altura e prédios residenciais, respectivamente. Após o desenvolvimento dos mapas solares, são realizadas estimativas para capacidade de instalação e produção de energia elétrica por sistemas fotovoltaicos em cada edificação. O software EnergyPlus produziu modelos termoenergéticos para quatro edificações típicas representando cada uma das regiões de estudo e, assim, proceder um balanço de energia em escala anual para o consumo energético e a produção de energia. Considerando as hipóteses de simulação e premissas de cálculo utilizadas, verifica-se que existe potencial para a geração distribuída de energia em escala urbana para as regiões de estudo. Um resultado significativo ocorreu para a região do bairro São Geraldo, onde as dez maiores áreas de telhado equivalem a 53% do potencial total de instalação fotovoltaica aplicada a edificações da região de estudo. Ainda, realizado o balanço de energia, foram analisados os cenários de investimento para cada tipologia de edificação típica, resultando em um retorno sobre o investimento entre 9 e 13 anos, dependendo do tipo de edificação. / This work aims to develop a methodology, through computer simulation tools, for evaluating solar maps for shading analysis and incident solar radiation on the building roofs within the urban environment. This methodology is applied in the city of Porto Alegre. Thus, it is possible to identify the best areas to allocate future photovoltaic systems and avoid possible shading losses throughout the year. Therefore were selected four study areas, each one representing one type of neighborhood and respective buildings. The neighborhoods Centro Histórico, São Geraldo, São Sebastião and Santana were selected because they represent: commercial/office buildings, warehouses/workshops, low-rise residential and residential buildings, respectively. After the development of solar maps, estimates were made for the capacity of installation and the electric energy produced by photovoltaic systems in each building roof. The EnergyPlus software produced an energy model for a typical building of each study area (neighborhood) and make an energy balance in annual scale for the energy consumption and energy production. Considering the simulation hypothesis and assumptions, it appears that there is potential for the distributed generation in urban scale for the four study areas. A significant result was found for the São Geraldo region, where only the top ten building roof areas equals to 53% of the total potential of building applied photovoltaic in the respective neighborhood region. Also, performing the energy balance, investment scenarios were analyzed for each typical building, resulting in a return on investment between 9 and 13 years, depending on the building type.

This study aimed to experimentally evaluate the properties as sound absorbers of two modular green roof systems commonly used in Brazil: the Alveolar simple and the modular Hexa. This study emerged from the unification of two aggravating problems, being the environment degradation and the environmental noise, given the records that vegetated roofs generally have several environmental benefits, including acoustic. The two systems were evaluated with the same substratum, but with different features and using distinct plants and assembly modes, that is, grass on the Alveolar system and plants of the sedum genus on the Hexa modular system. Measuring experiments of sound absortion have been made for each of the systems, consisting of two measurings with different substratum thickness and one measuring of the systems with sedum plants. The chosen experimental procedure was the method of reverberation chamber in a diffuse sound field. It was found that substrata of all the combinations of investigated samples have interesting absorption properties, due their porosity. The maximum sound absorption coefficient α of the Alveolar system with 2.5cm thick substratum was 1.0 at 1kHz, and the lower frequency coefficient are close to 0.20. The Alveolar system with 4 cm of substratum and the Hexa modular system with sedum plants were those which had, in general, higher values for α in all frequency bands, as well as showing the highest NRC values, in other words: values of 0.80 and 0.81 respectively. The maximum α in the Alveolar system with a layer of 4 cm thick substratum reached the value of 0.89 at frequencies of 1 kHz, 2 kHz and 2.5 kHz, and at the low frequencies from 100 Hz to 200 Hz the sample reached α values between 0.25 and 0.32; whereas the Hexa modular system with a 6cm substratum plus sedum the α values were 0.94 at a frequency of 800Hz, and between 0.16 and 0.26 at low frequencies. The 4cm thick Alveolar system with grass was the system which had higher α values in the frequencies of 100Hz and 200Hz, between 0.31 and 0.38, therefore being most efficient for traffic noise absorption. In general, the absorption coefficients of all samples doubled the value at the range of 250Hz, in comparison to the 200Hz frequency. The obtained results show a high absorption coefficient for such systems, which indicates that using green roofs can be na effective alternative of urban noise control. / Este estudo teve como objetivo principal avaliar experimentalmente as propriedades como absorvedores sonoros de dois sistemas modulares de telhados verdes comumente utilizados no Brasil: alveolar simples e hexa. Este eclodiu da unificação de dois problemas agravantes, sendo a degradação do meio ambiente e ruído ambiental, partindo-se dos registros que telhados vegetados de forma geral possuem vários benefícios ambientais, inclusive acústicos. Foram analisados os dois sistemas com a mesma composição de substrato, porém com particularidades no esquema de montagem e plantas diferenciadas, isto é, grama no sistema alveolar e planta do tipo sedum no sistema hexa. Foram realizados experimentos de medição de absorção sonora de cada um dos sistemas, sendo duas medições considerando espessuras diferenciadas de substrato e uma medição do conjunto com planta. O procedimento experimental foi o método da câmara reverberante em campo difuso. Verificou-se que os substratos das amostras de todas as combinações investigadas possuem interessantes propriedades de absorção, por serem altamente porosos. O coeficiente de absorção sonoro (α) máximo do sistema alveolar com 2,5cm de substrato foi de 1,0 em 1 kHz, e nas baixas frequências tem coeficientes próximos de 0,20. Já o sistema alveolar com 4 cm de substrato e o sistema hexa com sedum foram os que apresentaram, no geral, maiores valores no α em todas as faixas de frequência, além de apresentarem em termos de NRC os maiores valores, ou seja: 0,80 e 0,81 respectivamente. O α máximo no sistema alveolar com 4 cm de espessura do substrato atingiu 0,89 nas frequências de 1kHz, 2kHz e 2,5 kHz, e nas baixas frequências valores de α entre 0,25 à 0,32 nas frequências de 100 à 200 Hz; já no sistema hexa com espessura do substrato de 6cm com sedum o α máximo foi de 0,94 na frequência de 800Hz, e nas baixas frequências entre 0,16 a 0,26. O sistema alveolar com espessura de 4 cm com grama foi o que obteve maiores α nas baixas frequências de100 a 200 Hz com valores de 0,31 a 0,38, sendo assim mais eficaz para absorção de ruído de tráfego. No geral, os coeficientes de absorção de todas as amostras dobraram o valor na faixa de 250 Hz em relação a 200 Hz. Os resultados obtidos indicam um alto coeficiente de absorção para tais equipamentos, o que sugere que a utilização de telhados verdes pode ser uma ótima alternativa de controle de ruído urbano.