Recent research suggests that rural people develop a rich array of informal support and exchange among their kin, neighbors and friends. These informal exchanges are argued to develop in response to the weak penetration of formal state structures and capitalist market relations in peripheral regions. This case study of the survival strategies of low income rural mothers who live in Quebec village demonstrates that these mothers' avenues for economic and social integration are restricted by the formal and informal sectors which constitute and reinforce one another. First, an extensive data and document analysis of the Quebec pronatalist and welfare policies reveals that they fail to provide low income rural women access to appropriate training and education, to transportation and adequately subsidized child care, or to secure jobs. This restricts these women's integration into formal or informal systems of support and exchange. The second section draws on interviews with 20 community leaders and on two years of participant observation. Contrary to the literature which suggests that extensive informal ties promote socially and economically inclusive rural communities, this case study reveals that centralized state development policies limit local community initiative and independence. Hence, community effort to aid low income families are limited to charity which does not fundamentally alter these families' marginal position. The third section draws on semi-structured interviews with 20 low income single and married (or common-law) mothers. Comparing the single and married mothers' strategies reveals that studies of the rural informal sector have narrowly defined the sector, by excluding unpaid domestic and child care work. It is shown that the married mother's strategy to stay in the home is a viable one because she alone performs the unpaid work of the home. This results in her isolation in the domestic sphere. For the single mothers who seek paid work, the gende

Food insecurity has remained pervasive for most Kenyan livelihoods despite the implementation of substantive interventions by the government and its development partners, since it gained independence in 1963. The inability to isolate distinct determinants of food insecurity for each livelihood group has led to interventions and solutions that have entrenched food insecurity rather than mitigate it. The key impediment to a livelihood-level analysis of food insecurity is the use of data and information collected at district-level administrative units, coupled with the absence of a robust analytical methodology. This study set out to identify determinants of food insecurity for three distinct livelihood groups in Kenya, namely the pastoral, agro-pastoral and marginal agricultural groups. The study also sought to empirically evaluate incremental impacts of identified determinants of food insecurity for each group. The outcomes were intended to inform the selection of particular indicators in order to target, monitor and identify important inter-relationships between variables for each livelihood group. Few studies have applied heterogeneous ordered logit regressions to livelihood-level data to evaluate food security determinants among livelihood groups and a comprehensive livelihood analysis of the determinants of food insecurity has not yet been undertaken in Kenya. Yet, Kenyan livelihoods are highly diverse, and livelihood characteristics transcend administrative boundaries. This study used a heterogeneous ordered logit to model determinants of food security in Kenya. The variables were: conflict, HIV/AIDS, rainfall, flooding, proximity to markets, migration patterns, food consumption sources, income contribution sources and own farm production. Results of significance tests and residual variability from the ordered logistic regression led to the identification of important determinants of food insecurity in each of the three livelihoods. The degree to which each of the variables was influential in accentuating food insecurity in each livelihood, was also evaluated. Determinants of food insecurity and their inter-relationships informed the selection of indicators for monitoring. Proximity to markets seemed to have a marked impact on food security in the pastoral, agropastoral and marginal agricultural livelihood groups. Conflict was influential in determining food insecurity, particularly for the pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. HIV/AIDS prevalence in the community was critical in determining food security status for the marginal agricultural and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. Rainfall was an important determinant of food insecurity in all the groups. Flooding had no significant impact on food insecurity. The results showed that an increase in the number of food sources improved food security in the pastoral, agro-pastoral and marginal agricultural livelihood groups. A diversity of income sources improved food security in the pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. The pastoral migration pattern seemed to have a substantial impact on food security especially in the pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihood groups. Own farm production was also influential in determining food security in both groups. The study outcome provides a basis for identification of important monitoring indicators including agro-climatic, trade and market processes, migration dynamics, income and food sources and the stability, settlement patterns, key livelihood and coping strategies in the three livelihood groups. The strong inter-relationships between variables suggest that multiple variables need to be monitored concurrently to address livelihood food insecurity in Kenya. The findings suggest that livelihood approaches are central to identifying determinants of food insecurity in Kenya. The outcomes of the study provide a basis for informing interventions intended to reverse food insecurity in Kenya for each distinct livelihood group. Further research could include an analysis of the impacts of seasonality, an in-depth analysis of the markets and their marked influence in affecting food security, and applications of similar methodologies to evaluate of the food insecurity of livelihood groups that were not covered in this study. Outcomes of this work are expected to provide a basis for formulating livelihood-specific interventions in Kenya. The results will provide a platform for further interrogation of important determinants of livelihood food insecurity by governments, researchers, and development partners. Aspects of the methodologies applied in this study can be replicated in adjacent countries with food security and livelihood characteristics similar to Kenya, such as Ethiopia and Somalia. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

In this study, a household resilience score was developed as a measure of rural household resilience to identify households with low resilience and to measure progress towards improved household resilience. Resilience is the ability of households to cope with risk. The motivation for the study originated from the first objective of the Framework of African Food Security (FAFS) of improved household risk management, and the indicator of progress towards this objective – proposed by the FAFS - a resilience score. A review of the literature indicated that the assets owned by a household could be used as a proxy for resilience. The household component of the Demographic and Health Surveys for six African countries was used to develop and apply the resilience score. The score was estimated using an index of assets owned by the household and information regarding household access to certain services and characteristics of the dwelling. There is disagreement in the literature concerning the best method of constructing an asset index in terms of how to weight the variables included in the index. As a result, four methods of constructing an index of socio-economic status (SES) were selected for comparison in this study: two linear principal component analysis (PCA) techniques; a non-linear or categorical principal component analysis (CATPCA) method; and a simple sum of assets technique. The results from the application of each of the four indices to the country data and the resulting classification of households into quintiles of SES were compared across several assessment criteria. No single method out-performed the others across all the assessment criteria. However, the CATPCA method performed better in terms of the proportion of variance explained by the first principal component and the stability of the solution. The results showed that for all methods, SES was not evenly distributed across the sample populations for the countries analysed. This violates the assumption of uniformity implied when using quintiles as classification cut-off points. As an alternate to the quintile split cluster analysis was applied to the SES scores derived for each country. The classification of households into SES groups was repeated using k-means cluster analysis of the household SES scores estimated by the CATPCA method for each country. The results showed that a greater proportion of households fell into relatively lower levels of SES, which is in contrast to the assumption of uniformity of SES made when using the quintile cut-off approach. Cluster analysis better reflected the clustered nature of the household data analysed in this study, compared to the quintile cut-off method. In a final analysis, the index of SES along with k-means cluster analysis was applied to household data from two different time periods for five African countries to determine whether the resilience measure was able to detect changes in household SES between the two periods and, therefore, whether the tool could be used to monitor changes in household resilience over time. The results showed evidence of adjustments in SES over time: there were differences in the per cent of households allocated to the clusters of SES between the two periods. Using the CATPCA index and k-means cluster analysis, Egypt, Uganda and Mali showed an increase in the per cent of 'poor' households, while for Kenya and Tanzania there was a reduction in the per cent of households allocated to the first cluster between time periods: the decrease for Kenya from 2003 to 2008 was as much as 13 percentage points. The observed changes in SES were then compared to changes in national poverty estimates reported in the literature. The resilience score developed in the study displayed an ability to track changes in household SES over time and could be used as a measure of progress towards improved household resilience. As such, the resilience measure could be valuable to policy-makers for monitoring the impacts of policies aimed at improving household resilience. Future research is recommended before the reliability of the resilience measure developed here can be fully ascertained. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

This mini-dissertation sets out to examine the perceptions of farmers in the Dasse Administrative Area of Gash-Barka zone of the impact of agro-ecological, socioeconomic and infrastructural constraints on food insecurity, and the coping strategies employed by 101 sampled farm households in order to understand how these strategies increase vulnerability or mitigate the effect of food shortages. Agricultural productivity was low and average cereal production provided only 39 per cent of annual household requirements. Self-sufficiency in grain obtained from own production sustained households for only four months a year. In line with this, the study examined the impact of agro-ecological, socio-economic, and infrastructural constraints to the problem of food insecurity as perceived by the farmers. Farmers perceived drought, erratic rainfall, and weed infestations as major agro-ecological constraints that hindered self-sufficiency in food production. Shortage of draught animals and labour and lack of cash and off-farm income, were most conceived socio-economic constraints that affected production. Lack of farm credit, health problem (malaria), and inadequate farmers advisory service were most perceived infrastructural constraints that affected production and household food security. This shows that food security interventions need to be built around mitigating these perceived causes. The study also investigated coping strategies and their impact on increasing vulnerability or mitigating the effect of food shortages. The coping strategies applied by the studied households were largely consumption-based and non-erosive, indicating that households were relatively resilient to food security shocks. However, these strategies could be detrimental to the nutritional well being of household members, as they determined dietary intake. These coping strategies were particularly detrimental to household food security, as proper nutrition is critical for active and productive life. Thus, health and nutrition related interventions are highly required to address these problems. Food security interventions need to support livelihoods in ways that protect and buffer the natural resilience of households, providing direct assistance when erosive coping strategies are employed to ensure that households remain resilient to the fragile and variable situations in which they exist. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

The objective of this study is to know the drought phenomenon from Frederico Westphalen, in Rio Grande do Sul state, and to understand how rural families have experienced it. Starting from the premise that drought is perceived as a hazard and a disaster, the first step was to identify the occurrence of droughts in the region covered by the weather station of Iraí, in which Frederico Westphalen is located. The period of 1965-2005 was considered and the concerning droughts were characterized according to their frequency, duration, and intensity. In order to achieve this purpose, was used Hydric Serial Balance technique. Based on data collected through municipal decrees of emergency situation, the impact of the phenomenon on agricultural activities during the last ten years was identified. Later a qualitative methodology was used in order to understand how rural families have experienced the drought. The sample involved twenty participants from sexes both, between 36 to 83 years, members from 16 families, from 8 rural areas of Frederico Westphalen and data were collected using semi-structured interviews, carried out in their residences. The study indicates that droughts are characterized by being recurrent in some consecutive years, varying from mild to more intense, also duration from 6 months yet and the hydric peak occurs either in December, January, February or March in the period of 1965-2005. The impact of the droughts on the agricultural activities varies according to month of occurrence and the stage of planting development. Drought to leading the families to feelings of lack of protection, insecurity, and impotence as well. The first one (lack of protection) is a consequence of their limited resources to deal with the difficulties caused by the phenomenon. The second (impotence) appears as the droughts cause losses in the agricultural production and quality of life (cuts on their expenses with food, leisure activities, and other needs), losses of investments (raw materials, work), losses of goods (losses of capitalization) and difficulties to control the situation (dependency of public institutions). The third (insecurity) has its origin in the drought itself as an unpredictable event, which frustrates a great deal of expectations, especially for the families that are highly dependent on the agricultural production and as a consequence become vulnerable to the climatic hazard. / O estudo objetiva conhecer o fenômeno seca na região de Frederico Westphalen-RS e compreender como ele é vivenciado pelas famílias rurais deste município. Partindo-se da premissa de que a seca constitui-se num hazard e num desastre, fez-se, primeiramente, a identificação da ocorrência de secas na região que abrange a Estação Meteorológica de Iraí- RS, da qual o município de Frederico Westphalen-RS faz parte, no período de 1965-2005, além da caracterização quanto à sua freqüência, duração e intensidade. Para tal, utilizou-se a técnica do Balanço Hídrico seriado. Por meio de dados dos decretos municipais de situação de emergência do município, identificou-se os impactos das secas nas atividades agrícolas no período de 1995-2005. Posteriormente, utilizou-se metodologia qualitativa para compreender como as famílias rurais de Frederico Westphalen-RS vivenciam as situações de seca. A amostra foi composta por vinte participantes de ambos os sexos, com idade entre 36 e 83 anos, membros de dezesseis famílias de oito localidades da zona rural. Os dados foram coletados por meio de entrevistas semi-estruturadas, realizadas nas residências dos participantes. Do estudo depreende-se que as secas na região em estudo caracterizam-se por sua recorrência, inclusive em alguns anos consecutivos, tendo intensidade de leve a muito forte e duração de até seis meses em alguns anos do período de 1965-2005. O mês em que incide o maior nível de déficit hídrico foi identificado como variável entre dezembro, janeiro, fevereiro e março. Por esse motivo, os impactos das secas nas atividades agrícolas também são diferenciados de acordo com a época da sua ocorrência e a fase de desenvolvimento dos cultivos. Frente ao fenômeno seca e seus impactos potenciais, as famílias rurais podem experimentar sentimentos como desproteção, impotência e insegurança. O primeiro (desproteção) decorre de seus limitados recursos para lidar com as dificuldades ocasionadas pelo fenômeno. O segundo (impotência) surge na medida em que a seca vai se manifestando e desencadeando inúmeras perdas: perdas na produção agrícola e, conseqüentemente, perdas na qualidade de vida (cortes nas despesas com alimentação, lazer e outras necessidades), perda de investimentos (insumos, trabalho), perda de bens (descapitalização) e perda do controle sobre a situação (dependência do auxílio público). O terceiro (insegurança) tem sua origem na própria seca enquanto fenômeno imprevisível que, ao se manifestar, acaba por frustrar inúmeras expectativas, especialmente naquelas famílias altamente dependentes dos ganhos agrícolas e, portanto, vulneráveis a este hazard climático.

Submitted by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2014-10-29T10:22:55Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Frankcione Borges de Almeida - 2014.pdf: 4755474 bytes, checksum: cc523f36e1835246a46116aa31e6889d (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2014-10-30T10:42:13Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Frankcione Borges de Almeida - 2014.pdf: 4755474 bytes, checksum: cc523f36e1835246a46116aa31e6889d (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-30T10:42:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Frankcione Borges de Almeida - 2014.pdf: 4755474 bytes, checksum: cc523f36e1835246a46116aa31e6889d (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-06-11 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Goiás - FAPEG / This research had the objective to evaluate management efficacy, to identify institutional and organizational obstacles and the effectiveness of Bolsa Família Program for the alimentary safety of rural families assisted in the municipality of Rio Verde (GO). In order to achieve the proposed goals, the study is supported by literature review and quantitative and qualitative analysis of the data collected in the field research. The study is structured in five chapters, including the introduction. In the second chapter, the theoretical and methodological aspects are presented, followed by a discussion of public policies, transfer payment policies, evaluation of public policies, alimentary safety and rurality. In the third chapter, we present the general aspects of Bolsa Família Program and secondary data obtained from the official agencies of the program in the researched empirical universe. In the fourth chapter, we present the analysis and discussion of the data about alimentary safety and Bolsa Família Program in the researched universe and in the fifth, our conclusion. 94 rural families, all beneficiary of the program, were interviewed through the application of a semi-structured questionnaire. Besides, interviews were carried out with the local managers of social assistance, education and health with the aim of evaluating management. The data collection and analysis allowed us to present the socioeconomic and sociodemographic profile of the subjects and their perception of the program and of the agencies in charge. There is prevalence of mild alimentary insecurity in 54,25% of the researched families, measured by the Brazilian Scale of Alimentary Insecurity (EBIA). The results allowed the evaluation of the efficacy and the identification of the obstacles in the municipal management in the acting axis of Bolsa Família Program, as well as proposing specific conditionalities of the program for the rural environment. / Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo avaliar a eficácia da gestão, identificar os entraves institucionais e organizacionais e a efetividade do Programa Bolsa Família na segurança alimentar de famílias rurais assistidas no município de Rio Verde (GO). Para atender aos objetivos propostos, o estudo sustenta-se em revisão bibliográfica e análise quantitativa e qualitativa dos dados provenientes da pesquisa de campo. O trabalho está estruturado em cinco capítulos incluindo a introdução. No segundo capítulo, apresentam-se os contornos teórico metodológicos, seguido de uma abordagem sobre políticas públicas, políticas de transferência de renda, avaliação de políticas públicas e finaliza com segurança alimentar e ruralidade. No terceiro capítulo apresentam-se os aspectos gerais do Programa Bolsa Família e dados secundários obtidos em órgãos oficiais do programa no universo empírico estudado. No quarto capítulo, são apresentadas a análise e discussão dos dados da segurança alimentar e o programa bolsa família no universo pesquisado e no quinto as considerações finais. Foram entrevistadas 94 famílias rurais beneficiárias do Programa com aplicação de questionário semiestruturado. Também foram realizadas entrevistas com os gestores locais da assistência social, educação e saúde com o objetivo de avaliar a gestão. A coleta e análise de dados provenientes da pesquisa permitiram apresentar o perfil da situação socioeconômica e sociodemográfica dos sujeitos e de suas percepções em relação ao programa e às entidades responsáveis. Há prevalência de Insegurança Alimentar leve em 54,25% das famílias pesquisadas, medida pela Escala Brasileira de Insegurança Alimentar (EBIA). Os resultados permitiram a avaliação da eficácia e identificação dos entraves da Gestão Municipal nos eixos de atuação do Programa Bolsa Família, além de propor condicionalidades específicas do programa para o rural.

Rwanda, in its transition phase since 1994, has had the support of major international development organizations, including the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the United Nations Development Program, the US Agency for International Development (USAID), and other development organizations. The aim of this support is to promote Rwandan agriculture in which 45 percent of the Rwandan GDP and 90 percent of employment share originate. The possible role that farmers can play in this process through their small-scale farmers' associations is well recognized by the Ministry of Agriculture in Rwanda. Farmers in Gikongoro province, the study area, are constrained by many factors, such as soil infertility, small land areas, and lack of access to modern inputs (e.g., seed, fertilizer and lime) and agricultural credit. In addition, land degradation in the form of soil erosion, soil acidity, and nutrient depletion undermines soil productivity leading to poor crop yields, and keeps farmers dependent on potential support from government and non-governmental projects. Between 2000 and 2004, farmers in Gikongoro province received support from the Development Activity Program (DAP) under the umbrella of World Vision International, Rwanda. The DAP supports farmers mainly in land terracing for soil erosion control, and supported farmers also receive modern inputs (fertilizer, seed and lime), storage facilities, and training. This study analyzes the impact of agricultural assistance afforded by the DAP and socioeconomic characteristics of households on agricultural production in Gikongoro province. Data for this study were collected from July to August 2004 using a stratified multistage sample of 204 household heads who are members of 24 farmers' associations of which 10 are supported by the DAP in the three districts; Mudasomwa, Kivu, and Nyamagabe. The study compares DAP supported and unsupported farmers in terms of differences in household incomes and crop yields. Descriptive statistics indicate that DAP supported farmers have significantly higher yields, household income, and better access to modern inputs and terraced land than unsupported farmers. These results seem to indicate that DAP support has had a significant impact on agricultural production and household incomes in Gikongoro province. However, these results are based only on a univariate analysis. The relationship between socioeconomic characteristics and household potato production in Gikongoro province was also analyzed to identify other factors that affect food production. A recursive system of linear and log-linear equations was estimated to analyze the effects of DAP, cultivated potato area, liquidity, gender of the household head (producer), years of schooling, family size, and age of the producer on farmers' productivity as measured by potato yields. Investment in operating inputs (fertilizer, seed, and lime) was used as a determinant of potato yields. Results indicate that cultivated potato area, liquidity, family size, and age (greater experience and lower transaction costs) of the household head significantly increase the use of operating inputs, which in turn has a significant positive impact on potato yield. The study suggests that DAP may need to be more selective in supporting farmers, focusing more on the farm size, education and family size profile of association members when deciding where to channel support. The study also recommends more research into the efficiency of land rental and credit markets to better understand land and liquidity constraints to improved household production in Gikongoro province. A networking model for supporting farmers' associations is proposed, in which a joint role for the Rwandan government, academic and research institutions, NGOs, and the private sector is expected to lead to sustainable agricultural development in Gikongoro province, Rwanda. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

This study set out to investigate the food insecurity coping strategies of sample households from the Embo community in the Umbumbulu district of KwaZulu-Natal. A total of 151 Ezemvelo Farmers' Organisation and 49 non-EFO members were interviewed in two rounds, beginning in October 2004 and March 2005. The total sample included 200 respondents from 176 households. A survey questionnaire was used to collect data on socio-economic characteristics, food consumption patterns and application of consumption coping strategies. The study used the Coping Strategy Index to establish the food security status of the households by calculating and comparing the Coping Strategy Index Scores of households. Households applied short-term food consumption coping strategies to cope with food shortages and resorted to short-term income coping strategies when they experienced income shocks. Coping strategies employed by households were effective in mitigating food insecurity. Most strategies applied by most households were not detrimental to livelihoods and did not compromise future household food security. Food insecurity increased the frequency and severity of application of coping strategies employed by households. Households ate less preferred foods, skipped days without eating and ate wild foods. These coping strategies were particularly dangerous to households as proper nutrition is critical for ensuring healthy and productive lives. Food security interventions need to support beneficial coping strategies currently employed by households. Relevant stakeholder like the Departments of Health and Social Development need to target nutritional interventions through workshops and training with vulnerable households. Supporting protective coping mechanisms entails protecting entitlements to land, water resources and productive and non-productive assets. Agricultural production improved the incomes and food consumption of the sampled households. Sustainable agricultural production should be promoted and sustained at household level. The Ministry of Agriculture and local development agencies should assist the community by providing production inputs, for example, provision of vegetable seeds, mechanisation, infrastructure and information on improved production techniques to encourage greater productivity and wider engagement in agriculture. Home gardens could make iii valuable contributions to family food supply and income. The Ministry of Agriculture and local development agencies should give more advice through extension and training services, providing support through negotiation of contracts with suppliers. While agriculture may play a major role in the reduction of food insecurity, attention should also be given to the promotion of non-farming activities, particularly those that can reduce food insecurity. The community and households should actively engage in the design and implementation of policies government policies and strategies for farm and non-farm interventions. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

Submitted by ELICARDO HEBER DE ALMEIDA BATISTA null (elicardoheber@yahoo.com.br) on 2016-07-30T20:05:31Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese_Geografia_Elicardo_Final_Completa.pdf: 4459045 bytes, checksum: 5677373dfe7024196ae207e62aeb863d (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ana Paula Grisoto (grisotoana@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2016-08-02T13:57:42Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 batista_eha_dr_prud.pdf: 4459045 bytes, checksum: 5677373dfe7024196ae207e62aeb863d (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-02T13:57:42Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 batista_eha_dr_prud.pdf: 4459045 bytes, checksum: 5677373dfe7024196ae207e62aeb863d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-04-28 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / Esta tese tratará dos meios, modos e condições de vida de famílias rurais localizadas na base da estrutura social brasileira, ou seja, daquelas classificadas como pobres pelo governo brasileiro. De forma mais específica, serão discutidas as estratégias de reprodução social de famílias rurais pobres economicamente, residentes no município de Itinga, Vale do Jequitinhonha, mesorregião bastante emblemática por se apresentar no cenário nacional como um “bolsão de miséria”, definida a partir dos indicadores de alta incidência de pobreza (econômica) e por ter se estabelecido como uma espécie de “viveiro de migrantes”. O deslocamento temporário dos migrantes do trabalho precário e a migração definitiva de parte das famílias e indivíduos dali originados, para as mais diversas regiões do Brasil, são elementos que vêm sendo utilizados como indicativo de um processo de desruralização. O referido município está localizado em um ambiente social e econômico marcado pelo pouco dinamismo socioeconômico, por altos índices de carências sociais e materiais e pelo predomínio de população rural envolvida em atividades agrícolas, principalmente para o autoconsumo. Baseada em metodologias qualitativas na produção de evidências, e tendo as famílias residentes em comunidades rurais como unidade de análise, a pesquisa parte de dois princípios hipotéticos: I- mesmo as regiões rurais menos dinâmicas do país não estão passando por um processo de esvaziamento social, cultural, demográfico e econômico, e a migração, sobretudo do trabalho precário, é parte das estratégias de reprodução social, para a própria permanência nos lugares de origem, e de forma mais ampla, é elemento constitutivo da cultura local; II- a ampliação de políticas sociais em regiões carentes impactam consideravelmente as dinâmicas sociais e econômicas das famílias rurais, possibilitando melhora na economia das unidades familiares, permitida pelos rendimentos não contributivos. Esses rendimentos interferem nos sentidos e significados da mobilidade espacial, condicionando inclusive a permanência desses possíveis migrantes em suas localidades de origem. / This thesis treats of the means, manners and living conditions of rural households located at the base of the Brazilian social structure, i.e. those people classified as poor by the Brazilian Government. More specifically, it will be discussed the social reproduction strategies of poor rural families economically, residents in the municipality of Itinga, Jequitinhonha Valley, a mesoregion rather emblematic for performing on the national scene as a "pocket of misery", defined from the high incidence of poverty (economic) and because it was established as a kind of "migrant nursery”. For the most diverse regions of Brazil, the temporary displacement of migrants working in precarious situations , the final migration as part of families and individuals from there originated are elements which have been used as indicative in a deruralization process. This municipality is located in a social and economic environment known by its little socioeconomic dynamism, high levels of social and material deprivation, and the predominance of the rural population engaged in agricultural activities, manly for self-consumption. Based on qualitative methodologies in production of evidences, and having families residing in rural communities as the unit of analysis, the research begins of two hypothetical principles: I- even less dynamic rural regions of the country are not going through a process of the social, cultural, economic demographic and migration emptying, especially at precarious work, is part of the social reproduction strategies in order to stay in their own places of origin, and more broadly, element of the local culture; II- the social policies expansion in poor areas impact considerably the social and economic dynamics of rural peoples in poor areas, enabling improving the economy in family units, allowed for non-contributory income. Such income interfere with senses and meanings spatial mobility, including conditioning potential migrants in their home localities. / Esta tesis se ocupa de los medios, modos y condiciones de vida de los hogares rurales ubicados en la base de la estructura social brasilera, es decir, aquellos clasificados como pobres por el gobierno. Analizaremos las estrategias de reproducción social de las familias rurales pobres, residentes en la ciudad de Itinga, en el Valle del Jequitinhonha, mesorregión emblemática por presentarse en el escenario nacional como "foco de miseria", que se define sobre la base de indicadores de alta incidencia de pobreza económica y por haberse establecido como una especie de "vivero de migrantes ". El desplazamiento temporal de los migrantes con trabajo precario y la migración definitiva por parte de las familias e individuos originarios de Itinga para diversas regiones de Brasil, se han utilizado como indicadores de un proceso de desruralización. El referido municipio se encuentra localizado en un entorno social y económico caracterizado por un bajo dinamismo socioeconómico, altos índices de necesidades sociales y materiales y por el predominio de la población rural involucrada en actividades agrícolas, principalmente para autoconsumo. Basado en metodologías cualitativas para la producción de evidencias, y teniendo como unidad de análisis las familias que viven en las comunidades rurales, la investigación parte de dos principios hipotéticos: I- las regiones rurales menos dinámicas del país no están pasando por un proceso de desocupación del espacio social, cultural, demográfico y económico, y la migración, especialmente la relacionada al trabajo precario, es parte de las estrategias de reproducción social, para permanecer en sus lugares de origen, y elemento de la cultura local; II- la expansión de las políticas sociales en las zonas pobres afectan significativamente las dinámicas sociales y económicas de la población rural, lo que permite una mejora en la economía de las unidades familiares, como consecuencia de las rentas no contributivas. Estos rendimientos interfieren en los sentidos y significados de la movilidad espacial, condicionando inclusive la permanencia de esos posibles migrantes en sus localidades de origen. / FAPESP: 2012/05014-7

This study looked at the opportunities and challenges faced in promoting smallholder farming as an element in rural economic development. The main objective is to highlight the key factors affecting smallholder production; and how those factors affect smallholder farmers in rural areas of Buffalo City Municipality, and hence identify the ones likely to predict success for future use in intervention programs. The content and scope of this study is limited to the socio-economic constraints (economic activities, household assets e.g. natural assets, physical assets, financial assets etc.) faced by rural households and therefore prescribe the necessary interventions to enhance rural livelihoods. Data was collected through review of secondary sources, direct observation through field visits and interviews with households. Questionnaires were used as the main tool of inquiry to gather data from households in selected villages within Buffalo City Municipality. The collected survey data was coded and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 19.0. The study used Descriptive, Gini Coefficient and Binary Logistics model to analyze the collected survey data. For the descriptive model, the main pointers that were employed for this study were frequencies and mean values. The Gini Coefficient model was used to measure the contribution of different sources of income to overall inequality. The binary logistic regression model was used to uncover the correlates of the household income for different rural groups (famers and non-farmers). The results reveal that farm income has a strong association to overall household income per capita. Unearned income sources also have a substantial contribution to household income. Remittances and child grants were significant to non-farming household income per capita. Given the diminishing farm size of smallholder-led agriculture; these results suggest that a diversified household income portfolio is vital in addressing poverty in rural areas. Based on the results this study concluded that agricultural activities cannot solely enhance food security.