<p>Artificial systems involving water oxidation and solar cells are promising ways for the conversion of solar energy into fuels and electricity. These systems usually consist of a photosensitizer, an electron donor and / or an electron acceptor. This thesis deals with the synthesis and photoinduced electron transfer of several donor-sensitizer-acceptor supramolecular systems.</p><p>The first part of this thesis describes the synthesis and properties of two novel dinuclear ruthenium complexes as electron donors to mimic the donor side reaction of Photosystem II. These two Ru₂ complexes were then covalently linked to ruthenium trisbipyridine and the properties of the resulting trinuclear complexes were studied by cyclic voltammetry and transient absorption spectroscopy.</p><p>The second part presents the synthesis and photoinduced electron transfer of covalently linked donor-sensitizer supramolecular systems in the presence of TiO₂ as electron acceptors. Electron donors are tyrosine, phenol and their derivatives, and dinuclear ruthenium complexes. Intramolecular electron transfer from the donor to the oxidized sensitizer was observed by transient absorption spectroscopy after light excitation of the Ru(bpy)₃²⁺ moiety. The potential applications of Ru₂-based electron donors in artificial systems for water oxidation and solar cells are discussed.</p><p>In the final part, the photoinduced interfacial electron transfer in the systems based on carotenoids and TiO₂ is studied. Carotenoids are shown to act as both sensitizers and electron donors, which could be used in artificial systems to mimic the electron transfer chain in natural photosynthesis.</p>

<p>Synthetic and physicochemical studies on appropriately functionalized ODN-conjugates have been performed to evaluate their abilities to act as antisense agents against RNA or as intramolecular DNA cross-linking agents. Intercalating aromatic systems [phenazine (Pnz), dipyridophenazine (DPPZ)] and metallointercalators such as Ru²⁺(phen)₂(DPPZ) and Ru²⁺(tpy)(DPPZ)<b>L</b> [where <b>L</b> = chemically or photochemically labile ligand, phen = phenanthroline, tpy = terpyridine], which are covalently tethered to the oligo-deoxynucleotides (ODNs), have been chosen for this purpose. The ODN-conjugates were typically prepared by automated solid phase synthesis using phosphoramidite building blocks, or on solid supports, both functionalized with the chromophore groups. The photosensitive metal complex, Ru²⁺(tpy)(DPPZ)(CH₃CN), has been incorporated by post-synthetic coupling to the amino-linker modified ODNs <i>via</i> an amide bond. The intercalating ability of the tethered chromophores gave enhanced stability of the duplexes and triplexes formed with ODN-conjugates and their complementary targets: DNA, RNA, or double-stranded DNA. The conjugation of DPPZ chromophore to ODN (at 3', 5' or at the middle) led us to incorporate Ru²⁺(phen)₂(DPPZ) through the DPPZ ligand, for the first time. The corresponding (Ru²⁺-ODN)•DNA duplexes showed dramatic stabilization (ΔT_m = 19.4 – 22.0ºC). The CD and DNase I footprinting experiments suggest that the stabilization is owing to metallointercalation by threading of the Ru²⁺(phen)₂ moiety through the ODN•DNA duplex core, thus "stapling" the two helical strands from the minor to major groove. On the other hand, Ru²⁺(tpy)(DPPZ)(CH₃CN)-ODN conjugates represent a new class of oligonucleotides containing the photoactivatible Ru²⁺ complexes, which can successfully crosslink to the complementary strand. The mechanism of cross-linking upon photoirradiation of [Ru²⁺(tpy)(DPPZ)(CH₃CN)-ODN]•DNA involves <i>in situ</i> conversion to the reactive [Ru²⁺(tpy)(DPPZ)(H₂O)-ODN]•DNA which are subsequently cross-linked through the G residue of the complementary DNA strand. All starting materials and products have been purified by HPLC and/or by PAGE and subsequently characterized by MALDI-TOF as well as ESI mass spectroscopy. Terminal conjugation of the planar Pnz and DPPZ groups through the flexible linkers were also shown to improve thermal stability of the ODN•RNA hybrid duplexes without alteration of the initial AB-type global helical structure as revealed from CD experiments. As a result, RNase H mediated cleavage of the RNA strand in the intercalator-tethered ODN•RNA duplexes was more efficient compared to the natural counterpart. The RNase H cleavage pattern was also found to be dependent on the chemical nature of the chromophore. It appeared that introduction of a tether at the 3'-end of the ODN can be most easily tolerated by the enzyme regardless of the nature of the appending chromophore. The tethered DPPZ group has also been shown to chelate Cu²⁺ and Fe³⁺, like phenanthroline group, followed by the formation of redox-active metal complex which cleaves the complementary DNA strand in a sequence-specific manner. This shows that the choice of appropriate ligand is useful to (i) attain improved intercalation giving Tm enhancement, and (ii) sequence-specifically inactivate target RNA or DNA molecules using multiple modes of chemistry (RNase H mediated cleavage, free-radical, oxidative pathways or photocross-linkage).</p>

Synthetic and physicochemical studies on appropriately functionalized ODN-conjugates have been performed to evaluate their abilities to act as antisense agents against RNA or as intramolecular DNA cross-linking agents. Intercalating aromatic systems [phenazine (Pnz), dipyridophenazine (DPPZ)] and metallointercalators such as Ru2+(phen)2(DPPZ) and Ru2+(tpy)(DPPZ)<b>L</b> [where <b>L</b> = chemically or photochemically labile ligand, phen = phenanthroline, tpy = terpyridine], which are covalently tethered to the oligo-deoxynucleotides (ODNs), have been chosen for this purpose. The ODN-conjugates were typically prepared by automated solid phase synthesis using phosphoramidite building blocks, or on solid supports, both functionalized with the chromophore groups. The photosensitive metal complex, Ru2+(tpy)(DPPZ)(CH3CN), has been incorporated by post-synthetic coupling to the amino-linker modified ODNs via an amide bond. The intercalating ability of the tethered chromophores gave enhanced stability of the duplexes and triplexes formed with ODN-conjugates and their complementary targets: DNA, RNA, or double-stranded DNA. The conjugation of DPPZ chromophore to ODN (at 3', 5' or at the middle) led us to incorporate Ru2+(phen)2(DPPZ) through the DPPZ ligand, for the first time. The corresponding (Ru2+-ODN)•DNA duplexes showed dramatic stabilization (ΔTm = 19.4 – 22.0ºC). The CD and DNase I footprinting experiments suggest that the stabilization is owing to metallointercalation by threading of the Ru2+(phen)2 moiety through the ODN•DNA duplex core, thus "stapling" the two helical strands from the minor to major groove. On the other hand, Ru2+(tpy)(DPPZ)(CH3CN)-ODN conjugates represent a new class of oligonucleotides containing the photoactivatible Ru2+ complexes, which can successfully crosslink to the complementary strand. The mechanism of cross-linking upon photoirradiation of [Ru2+(tpy)(DPPZ)(CH3CN)-ODN]•DNA involves in situ conversion to the reactive [Ru2+(tpy)(DPPZ)(H2O)-ODN]•DNA which are subsequently cross-linked through the G residue of the complementary DNA strand. All starting materials and products have been purified by HPLC and/or by PAGE and subsequently characterized by MALDI-TOF as well as ESI mass spectroscopy. Terminal conjugation of the planar Pnz and DPPZ groups through the flexible linkers were also shown to improve thermal stability of the ODN•RNA hybrid duplexes without alteration of the initial AB-type global helical structure as revealed from CD experiments. As a result, RNase H mediated cleavage of the RNA strand in the intercalator-tethered ODN•RNA duplexes was more efficient compared to the natural counterpart. The RNase H cleavage pattern was also found to be dependent on the chemical nature of the chromophore. It appeared that introduction of a tether at the 3'-end of the ODN can be most easily tolerated by the enzyme regardless of the nature of the appending chromophore. The tethered DPPZ group has also been shown to chelate Cu2+ and Fe3+, like phenanthroline group, followed by the formation of redox-active metal complex which cleaves the complementary DNA strand in a sequence-specific manner. This shows that the choice of appropriate ligand is useful to (i) attain improved intercalation giving Tm enhancement, and (ii) sequence-specifically inactivate target RNA or DNA molecules using multiple modes of chemistry (RNase H mediated cleavage, free-radical, oxidative pathways or photocross-linkage).

Artificial systems involving water oxidation and solar cells are promising ways for the conversion of solar energy into fuels and electricity. These systems usually consist of a photosensitizer, an electron donor and / or an electron acceptor. This thesis deals with the synthesis and photoinduced electron transfer of several donor-sensitizer-acceptor supramolecular systems. The first part of this thesis describes the synthesis and properties of two novel dinuclear ruthenium complexes as electron donors to mimic the donor side reaction of Photosystem II. These two Ru2 complexes were then covalently linked to ruthenium trisbipyridine and the properties of the resulting trinuclear complexes were studied by cyclic voltammetry and transient absorption spectroscopy. The second part presents the synthesis and photoinduced electron transfer of covalently linked donor-sensitizer supramolecular systems in the presence of TiO2 as electron acceptors. Electron donors are tyrosine, phenol and their derivatives, and dinuclear ruthenium complexes. Intramolecular electron transfer from the donor to the oxidized sensitizer was observed by transient absorption spectroscopy after light excitation of the Ru(bpy)32+ moiety. The potential applications of Ru2-based electron donors in artificial systems for water oxidation and solar cells are discussed. In the final part, the photoinduced interfacial electron transfer in the systems based on carotenoids and TiO2 is studied. Carotenoids are shown to act as both sensitizers and electron donors, which could be used in artificial systems to mimic the electron transfer chain in natural photosynthesis.

A leishmaniose pertence à classe de doenças infecciosas e é causada por parasitas do gênero Leishmania. Essa enfermidade se manifesta nas formas visceral ou cutânea e o tratamento de ambas consiste em quimioterapia utilizando fármacos à base de antimônio. A aplicação desses medicamentos, no entanto, apresenta diversas desvantagens, como o surgimento de efeitos colaterais severos e a disseminação de parasitas resistentes aos fármacos convencionais. Dessa forma, há uma grande necessidade de se desenvolver novos medicamentos, bem como, novas técnicas de tratamento e diagnostico. Neste trabalho foram sintetizados novos fotossensibilizadores derivados da riboflavina (vitamina B2) com potencial aplicação no tratamento de leishmaniose cutânea (através de terapia fotodinâmica) e foram sintetizados novos complexos de Ru (II) com potencial uso como sensores luminescentes de antimônio. Os derivados da riboflavina foram obtidos utilizando a vitamina B2 como material de partida e as transformações químicas estudadas fizeram uso de reações de acilação das hidroxilas da cadeia ribitil e de alquilações do nitrogênio 3 do sistema de anéis isoaloxazina. Essas modificações estruturais permitiram a construção de uma biblioteca de fotossensibilizadores que contém partes hidrofílicas, hidrofóbicas, anfifílicas e iônicas, que possibilitaram estudos da relação estrutura atividade. Com a otimização dessas rotas sintéticas foram obtidos dois derivados flavínicos-catiônicos inéditos na literatura com rendimentos de até 68%. Foi mostrado que as transformações químicas estudadas não afetaram significantemente as propriedades fotofísicas dos derivados flavínicos, sendo todos eles fluorescentes e capazes de fotossensibilizar a produção de oxigênio singlete com rendimento quântico semelhante ao da riboflavina (&#934;&#916. &#8776; 0,5). Por outro lado, as modificações estruturais na riboflavina alteraram as propriedades físico-químicas em termos de solubilidade e coeficiente de partição. Os derivados sintetizados foram testados contra promastigotas de Leishmania major utilizando LED azul (470 nm). Os fotossensibilizadores apresentaram baixa toxicicidade no escuro (CE50 (concentração efetiva 50%)> 100 &#181;M para todos os compostos) e todos os derivados testados apresentaram maior fototoxicidade (CE50 de até 5 &#181;M) que a riboflavina (CE50 de 50 &#181;M). Foi observado que a fototoxicidade dos derivados da riboflavina está fortemente associada à lipofilicidade do fotossensibilizador. Um complexo de Ru (II) que responde à presença de antimônio foi preparado a partir do bis-complexo Ru(bpz)2Cl2 e do ligante derivado da fenantrolina contendo o grupo bitiofeno (bitiofeno-imidazo-fen). Esse complexo apresenta potencial na construção de sensores luminescentes de antimônio. Foi mostrado que o novo complexo sintetizado [Ru(bpz)2(bitiofeno-imidazo-fen)2+] apresenta baixa luminescência na região do vermelho devido à auto-supressão causada pelo grupo bitiofeno. No entanto, estudos preliminares mostraram que a adição de SbCl3 ou tartarato de antimônio ao meio intensifica significativamente a emissão nessa região do espectro. Devido à formação do complexo Sb-bitiofeno, ocorre o aumento percentual da espécie eletronicamente excitada e a mesma é auto-suprimida com menos eficiência. / The leishmaniases belong to a group of infectious diseases caused by a parasite of the genus Leishmania. This disease manifests as the visceral or the cutaneous forms and the treatment of both types is based on chemotherapies with antimony drugs. The application of these drugs, however, presents drawbacks like several side effects and dissemination of parasites resistant to this conventional treatment. Thus, there is a growing need to develop new drugs, as well as new modalities of treatment and diagnosis. In this work, novel photosensitizers derived from riboflavin (vitamin B2) with potential application in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis (by photodynamic therapy) were synthesized. Also, novel Ru (II) complexes with potential usage as luminescent sensors of antimony were synthesized. The riboflavin derivatives were obtained by using vitamin B2 as the starting material, and the chemical transformations were based on acylation of the hydroxyl groups from the ribityl side chain and alkylation of nitrogen 3 of the isoalloxazine ring system.These structural modifications yielded a library of photosensitizers containing hydrophilic, hydrophobic, amphiphilic or ionic moieties, which provide molecules for a study of the structure-activity relationship. By optimizing these synthetic routes, two novel cationic riboflavin derivatives were obtained in good yield (up to 68%). It has been shown that the chemical modifications performed have not significantly affected the photophysical properties of the riboflavin derivatives. All compounds are fluorescent and able to photosensitize singlet oxygen in yields similar to riboflavin itself (&#934;&#916 &#8776; 0,5). On the other hand, these structural modifications varied the physic-chemical properties related to solubility and partition coefficient of the derivatives. The obtained derivatives were tested against promastigotes of Leishmania major using blue LED (470 nm). The photosensitizers displayed low dark toxicity (EC50 (Effective Concentration 50%) > 100 &#181;M for all the studied compounds) and all derivatives showed greater phototoxicity (EC50 up to 5&#181;M) when compared to riboflavin (EC50 = 50&#181;M). It was observed that the phototoxicity of the riboflavin derivatives is strongly associated with the lipophilicity of photosensitizer. A Ru (II) complex that responds in the presence of antimony was prepared from Ru(bpz)2Cl2 and a phenanthroline ligand containing a bithiophene group (bithiophen-imidazo-phen). This complex can be potentially applied in the construction of luminescent sensors of antimony. It has been demonstrated that the novel complex [Ru(bpz)2(bitiofeno-imidazo-fen)2+] displays low red luminescence due to the self-quenching promoted by the bithiophen moiety. However, preliminary studies have evidenced that, upon addition of SbCl3 or antimony tartrate to the media, the emission intensifies in the red region of the spectrum. Due to the formation of the chelate Sb-bithiophene, the elf-quenching of the electronic excited species occurs less efficiently.

O NO é uma molécula endógena, envolvida em numerosos processos fisiológicos e patológicos. Diversas substâncias capazes de liberar NO in vivo têm sido estudadas, incluindo os complexos nitrosilo de rutênio, como o [Ru(terpy)(bdqi-COOH)NO](PF6)3, capaz de liberar NO após fotoestímulo. Considerando que as funções específicas do NO dependem de sua localização e cinética de liberação, e que a sua aplicação tópica pode evitar possíveis efeitos colaterais, o objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a absorção cutânea passiva e iontoforética do complexo [Ru(bdqi-COOH)(terpy)(NO)](PF6)3, assim como a do NO dele liberado. A atividade citotóxica do complexo também foi estudada em cultura de células tumorais A431 na presença e ausência de luz e de corrente elétrica. Foi desenvolvido e validado um método analítico para a quantificação do complexo de rutênio por CLAE e estudos de pré-formulação de solubilidade, coeficiente de partilha e estabilidade do complexo foram realizados antes dos estudos de penetração cutânea. O complexo de rutênio manteve-se estável em solução aquosa a temperatura ambiente até o período de 48h, mas instável em contato com a pele inteira, com a degradação de 61% após 8h. Em contato apenas com o estrato córneo (EC), no entanto, a degradação do complexo não foi considerada significativa após 4 h. A aplicação de uma corrente elétrica fraca a uma solução do complexo em pH fisiológico não alterou a estabilidade do mesmo, que não apresentou degradação significativa por 6h. Nos estudos de penetração passiva, observou-se por CLAE e por espectrometria de massas com fonte de plasma acoplado (ICP-MS) que o complexo foi capaz de penetrar o EC sem sofrer degradação, mas liberando parte do NO quando em contato com a epiderme viável. A aplicação da iontoforese aumentou significativamente a quantidade de rutênio na epiderme viável e solução receptora (6 e 15 vezes respectivamente), indicando maior penetração do complexo. O complexo Ru-NO assim como seu aquo complexo (formado após liberação do NO), não apresentaram citotoxicidade às células A431, na ausência de luz. A irradiação das células incubadas com o complexo, passivamente, em 377 e 532nm com diferentes doses também não acarretou morte celular significativa. No entanto, a aplicação de corrente elétrica constante (0,3mA cm-2) seguida de incubação por 4h com o complexo levou a morte celular de aproximadamente 50% das células A431 após irradiação em 377 nm com a dose de 10J cm-2. Para atingir este mesmo resultado com a irradiação em 532nm foi necessário aumentar o tempo de incubação com o complexo para 24h. Conclui-se, resumidamente, que a corrente elétrica aumentou a entrada do complexo na pele e nas células, levando a liberação de maior quantidade de NO dentro delas, com consequente morte celular. A liberação do NO do complexo estudado ocorre não apenas por estímulo luminoso mas também por reações de oxi-redução quando em contato com a pele ou com a cultura de células estudadas. Sendo assim, propõe-se a encapsulação deste complexo em sistemas de liberação com o intuito de controlar a liberação do NO. Experimentos preliminares de nanopartículas contendo o complexo estão descritos no Apêndice 1 desta tese. / NO is an endogenous molecule that is involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes. Several compounds capable of releasing NO in vivo have been studied, including nitrosyl ruthenium complexes such as the [Ru (terpy)(bdqi-COOH)NO](PF6)3 that is capable of releasing NO after photo-stimulus. Because the specific role of NO depends on its location and kinetics of release, and its topical application may avoid possible side effects, the aim of this work was to study the passive and the iontophoretic skin absorption of the [Ru(terpy)(bdqi-COOH)NO](PF6)3 complex, as well as its NO release. The cytotoxic activity of the complex was also studied in A431 tumor cells in the presence and absence of light and electrical current. An analytical method for the quantification of the ruthenium complex by HPLC was developed and validated; studies of pre-formulation such as solubility, partition coefficient and stability of the complex were also performed before the penetration studies. The ruthenium complex was stable in aqueous solution at room temperature for 48 hours, but unstable in contact with the full-thickness skin (61% was degraded after 8 h). However, the complexs contact for 4 h with the stratum corneum (SC) alone did not lead to the complex degradation. The application of a weak electric current in a solution of the complex at physiological pH did not affect its stability, which showed no significant degradation for 6 h. In the passive penetration studies it was observed, by HPLC and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), that the complex was able to penetrate the SC without degradation, but with some NO release when in contact with the epidermis. The application of iontophoresis significantly increased the amount of ruthenium in the viable epidermis and in the receiver solution (6 and 15 times, respectively), indicating greater complex penetration. The nitrosyl ruthenium complex and its aquo complex (formed after release of NO) showed no cytotoxicity to A431 cells in the absence of light. The irradiation of the cells incubated with the complex, passively, in 377 and 532 nm with different doses also did not cause significant cell death. However, the application of a constant electric current (0.3 mA cm-2) for 30 min followed by incubation for 4 h with the complex led to approximately 50% of A431 cell death after irradiation at 377 nm with a dose of 10J cm-2. To achieve this same result with irradiation at 532 nm it was necessary to increase the incubation time with the complex for 24 hours. In summary, the electric current increased the nitrosyl ruthenium complex skin and cell penetration, leading to release of higher amounts of NO into them, with consequent cell death. Furthermore, the release of NO from the ruthenium complex is showed to happen not only by light stimuli but also by redox reactions when it is in contact with the skin or with the culture of cells studied. Therefore, we propose the encapsulation of this complex in delivery systems in order to control the release of NO. Preliminary experiments with nanoparticles containing the complex are described in Appendix 1.

Ru-catalyzed olefin metathesis is an exceptionally powerful, versatile methodology for the assembly of carbon–carbon bonds. The N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC)-stabilized, “second-generation” Ru catalysts have enabled groundbreaking recent advances, ranging from the RCM assembly of cyclic peptides as hepatitis C virus therapeutics, to the elaboration of renewable seed oils and phenylpropanoids into value-added products and chemicals. However, key limitations arise from facile catalyst decomposition. Despite a plethora of studies on the synthesis of new catalysts, and on the decomposition processes accessible to the precatalyst and resting-state species, the underlying principles that govern decomposition of the active intermediates have been surprisingly little examined. One important reason for this is their incredible reactivity: the four-coordinate methylidene intermediate RuCl2(H2IMes)(=CH2) is too short-lived to be observed, while the metallacyclobutane (MCB) intermediate RuCl2(H2IMes)(2-C3H6) can only be observed below –40 °C. This makes them extremely challenging, but also fascinating targets for study. Understanding the underlying chemistry that dictates their reactivity and decomposition is essential for informed catalyst and process redesign, and is thus of fundamental interest, but also considerable practical importance. This thesis work thus aims at understanding the decomposition of active intermediates relevant to the highly-active, second-generation class of catalysts. Emphasis is placed on examining a variety of metathesis contexts, as well as providing solutions. Treated first are the decomposition pathways that arise during metathesis of electron-deficient olefins, a frontier area in organic synthesis, and in the utilization of renewable resources. An unexpected correlation is revealed between rapid catalyst decomposition, and the presence of a stabilizing PCy3 ligand in the standard catalyst for this reaction. The nucleophilic phosphine ligand is shown to attack an acrylate olefin, forming enolates that function as potent Brønsted bases. Literature evidence suggests that such strong bases are innocuous towards the precatalyst, pointing towards a key role for the active intermediates in Brønsted base-induced catalyst decomposition. Precisely which intermediate is involved, as well as the site of deprotonation, is elucidated next. Prior to this work, the NHC ligand was widely believed to be the target for attack. However, through labelling experiments, analysis of the Ru and organic byproducts, and computational studies, deprotonation is shown to occur at the MCB ring. Moreover, MCB deprotonation is revealed to be unexpectedly general, and not contingent on the presence of either an exceptionally strong base, or an electron-deficient substrate. This understanding is key, given recent reports from pharma highlighting the adverse impact of base contaminants, as well as current interest in metathesis of amine-containing substrates. Next examined are the intrinsic decomposition pathways operative for the MCB and four-coordinate methylidene. Prior to this work, the only reported pathway for decomposition of these two species involved beta-elimination of the MCB ring as propene. However, beta-elimination is shown to play an unexpectedly minor role in catalyst decomposition: less than 40% propenes are observed, even under conditions expected to favour MCB elimination. Bimolecular coupling of the methylidene, with loss of the methylidene moiety as ethylene, is proposed to account for the difference. Thus, transiently-stabilized adducts RuCl2(H2IMes)(=CH2)(L)n (L = o-dianiline or pyridine) are synthesized at temperatures down to –120 °C. On warming, these adducts lose Ln and rapidly decompose via bimolecular coupling, with loss of the methylidene moiety as ethylene. These experiments provide the first unambiguous evidence for bimolecular coupling in the important "second-generation" Ru systems, nearly two decades after which this pathway was dismissed in leading papers and reviews. The last two sections focus on solutions. First, a powerful, straightforward solution to the “enolate problem” is developed, whereby the acrylate enolates are quenched and sequestered via reaction with a polyphenol resin. Then, methods for preventing catalyst decomposition during matrix-assisted laser desorption / ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) are developed, via elucidation of the instrumental and experimental factors that promote successful analysis. As one of the only MS methods capable of affording insight into neutral metal complexes and catalysts, MALDI has unique potential to enable routine analysis of catalyst speciation and decomposition in situ, under real catalytic conditions, for a wide range of catalytic reactions. Collectively, the findings in this thesis offer a much more complete understanding of the fundamental pathways accessible to the important, highly-active metathesis intermediates, and offer strategies likely to inform practice in both academic and industrial settings. This understanding is key to harnessing the full potential of metathesis methodologies.

This thesis describes the development of the [RuCl₂(P N N)L] catalytic system for asymmetric hydrogenation. It has been demonstrated that the current system is efficient in preparing a range of bulky chiral alcohols in good enantioselectivity, many of which are likely to be inaccessible using the more classic [RuCl₂(P P)N N)] system developed by Noyori and coworkers. It has been shown that the current system is tolerant of a range of substrate electronic effects as well as the presence of heteroaromatic functionality, thus showing its applicability in synthesis. This has been extended to prepare a number of bulky derivatives of synthetically important molecules. The demonstration of this is significant as in drug design, for example, studies that aim to extend lipophilicity or steric bulk make the ability to prepare alcohols across the full range of steric properties important. We have shown that chiral alcohols with adjacent gem-dimethyl groups can be prepared in high enantioselectivity and their conversion into other valuable molecules, such as chiral lactones has been demonstrated. Detailed mechanistic studies have been undertaken for the present system in order to aid rational design of new, more active and selective catalysts. A number of achiral variants of the original system have been prepared and the key features of ligand structure for efficient catalysis have been identified. This was accomplished by rigorous kinetic analysis of each complex, using specialist gas-uptake monitoring equipment. The key features of catalyst structure and optimal reaction conditions for efficient asymmetric hydrogenation have been identified. Our greater understanding of the present system allowed us to rationally design new catalysts of for enantioselective hydrogenation. Our aim was to be able to tune the catalyst structure to carry out hydrogenation of a greater variety of ketone substrate with high activity and selectivity. We have successfully prepared second generation catalysts that show enhanced enantioselectivity for a variety of substrates, many of which were problematic with the Noyori system.

Les cellules solaires à colorant (DSSC) sont une alternative sérieuse aux cellules à base de silicium. Le principe de fonctionnement repose sur la photosensibilisation d'un semi-conducteur par un colorant qui est en général un complexe polypyridinique du ruthénium (II). La modulation des propriétés de ces complexes permet d'optimiser les performances des cellules solaires correspondantes. Dans cette thèse, nous avons synthétisé et étudié l'effet de nouveaux ligands bipyridiniques à substituants électro-donneurs [pi]-délocalisés à base de dithiénylpyrroles (DTP). Ces motifs induisent, dans les complexes homoleptiques, bis- et tris-hétéroleptiques du Ru(II), des effets bathochromes (lorsque les motifs DTP sont liés par leur cycle thiophénique à la bipyridine) et d'importantes augmentations des coefficients d'extinction molaires. Les nouveaux composés ont été caractérisés par spectroscopies, électrochimie, photophysique et calcul théorique. Deux complexes hétéroleptiques ont été testés en cellule DSSC. Si la collecte de photons est excellente, les performances restent en dessous de celles de colorants de référence. Comme en attestent les courbes J/V et les courbes IPCE. Ce résultat peut-être dû à une limitation lors de l'injection dans la bande de conduction ou encore à une gêne stéréo-électronique provoquée par le ligand lors de la réduction du colorant oxydé (Ru(III) par le médiateur / Dye-sensitized Solar Cells (DSSC) appear to be promising devices. Operation principle relies on the photosensitization of a wide-gap semiconductor with a dye, the latter typically being a polypyridinyl ruthenium(II) complex. Modulation of the properties of such complexes enables the optimization of the corresponding solar cells' performances. In the present work, we synthesized and investigated the effect of new bipyridine ligands bearing electron-donating dithienylpyrroles (DTP). These moieties induced red-shifts of the absorption spectra in homoleptic, bis- and tris-heteroleptic Ru(II) complexes especially when the DTP was bound by its thiophene unit to the bipyridine ligand. A notable increase of the molar extinction coefficients was also obtained. All new compounds have been characterized by using spectroscopic, electrochemical, photophysical and computational chemistry techniques. Two heteroleptic complexes have been tested in DSSCs. Despite excellent light harvesting properties, performances were found lower than those of standard dyes as revealed by J/V and IPCE curves. Stereoelectronic effects could be involved since the bulky DTP moiety could impede an efficient access of the mediator to Ru(III) centers

O óxido nítrico (NO) é um versátil agente biológico, atuando em diversas partes do organismo, tais como cérebro, artérias, sistema imunológico, fígado e pulmões. Sua natureza radicalar lhe confere grande reatividade e versatilidade, tornando o entendimento de sua bioquímica um desafio. A molécula de NO tende a reagir rapidamente com alguns metais de transição, formando compostos estáveis denominados complexos nitrosilos, os quais podem ser utilizados como fonte geradora de óxido nítrico. A liberação de NO a partir de complexos nitrosilos pode ocorrer por redução química, eletroquímica e fotoquímica. No presente trabalho foi estudada a obtenção, caracterização e permeação cutânea de um complexo nitrosilo de rutênio, o trans-[RuC(cyclam)(NO)]C2 (cyclam-NO), que associado ao fotossensibilizador protoporfirina IX, possui a peculiaridade de absorver na região do visível, podendo então ser aplicados na terapia fotodinâmica (TFD) para tratamento de câncer de pele. A mistura dos compostos foi incorporada em nanodispersões de cristais líquidos, de fase cúbica (DFC) e de fase hexagonal (DFH), e sua penetração/permeação in vitro em pele de modelo animal foi avaliada, assim como o comportamento fotoquímico do sistema, no que se refere à liberação de NO, visando uma futura aplicação em TFD. A atividade citotóxica dos compostos isolados e em mistura foi avaliada frente às linhagens B16F10 e Melan-A, na ausência e presença de luz, mostrando maior atividade da mistura dos compostos quando irradiados em 630 nm. Foram construídos diagramas de fase binário e ternário e, a partir destes, foram escolhidas as formulações a serem estudadas. Estas formulações foram caracterizadas por microscopia de luz polarizada e difração de raios-X e foram avaliados o tamanho médio de partícula e o índice de polidispersividade das nanodispersões obtidas e sua estabilidade por turbidimetria. Também foi analisada a liberação de oxigênio singlete e de NO a partir dos compostos em solução e destes incorporados nas formulações. Foi desenvolvido e validado um método analítico por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência para a quantificação simultânea dos compostos nos experimentos. A liberação dos compostos a partir das formulações usando membrana de acetato de celulose também foi avaliada, sendo possível detectar apenas o cyclam-NO. O estudo da eficiência de encapsulação mostrou que cerca de 70% da quantidade adicionada dos compostos foi incorporado na DFC e cerca de 80% na DFH. Os experimentos in vitro de permeação e retenção dos compostos em pele de orelha de porco mostraram aumento significativo da concentração dos compostos, comparado a controles contendo os mesmos em PEG. A DFH promoveu um aumento na concentração de PpIX no estrato córneo (EC) de 2,6 vezes e na epiderme+derme se EC ([E+D]) de 3,4 vezes, e para o cyclam-NO de 2,7 vezes no EC e 2,4 vezes na [E+D]. Já a DFC aumentou em 1,6 vezes a quantidade de PpIX no EC e 1,9 vezes na [E+D] e em 4,6 vezes a quantidade de cyclam-NO no EC e em 2,0 vezes na [E+D]. Os resultados obtidos permitem sugerir que estes sistemas são adequados para utilização como potenciais carreadores para a associação cyclam-NO e PpIX na TFD do câncer de pele e que esta associação apresentou efeito sinérgico, sendo mais eficiente que a utilização de apenas um dos compostos. / Nitric oxide (NO) is a versatile biological agent, acting in several parts of the body such as brain, arteries, immune system, liver and lungs. Its radical nature gives great versatility and reactivity, making the understanding of its biochemical a challenge. The NO molecule tends to react quickly with some transition metals, forming stable compounds called nitrosyl complexes, which can be used as a source of nitric oxide. NO release from nitrosyl complexes can occur by chemical, electrochemical or photochemical reduction. In this work, the acquisition, characterization and permeation of a nitrosyl ruthenium complex, trans-[RuC(cyclam)(NO)]C2 (cyclam-NO), which associated with the photosensitizer protoporphyrin IX, has the peculiarity of absorbing in the visible region, and could then be applied in photodynamic therapy (PDT) for treatment of skin cancer, were studied. The mixture of compounds was incorporated into liquid crystal nanodispersions, cubic (DFC) and hexagonal (DFH) phases, and its penetration/permeation in vitro in an animal model skin was evaluated, as well as the photochemical behavior of the system, with regard to NO release, seeking a future application in PDT. The cytotoxic activity of the compounds alone and in combination was evaluated against the B16F10 and Melan-A cell lines, in the absence and in the presence of light. Binary and ternary phase diagrams were constructed, and from these, the formulations to be studied were chosen. These formulations were characterized by polarized light microscopy and X-ray diffraction and were evaluated for particle size and polydispersity index of nanodispersions obtained and their stability by turbidimetry. Also, the release of singlet oxygen and NO from the compounds in solution and incorporated in the formulations was discussed. An analytical method using high efficiency liquid chromatography was developed and validated for simultaneous quantification of compounds in the experiments. The release of compounds from formulations using cellulose acetate membrane was evaluated, and only the cyclam-NO could be detect. The study of the encapsulation efficiency showed that about 70% of the added amount of the compounds was incorporated in the DFC and approximately 80% in DFH. In vitro permeation and retention experiments of the compounds in pig ear skin were performed, showing a significant increase in the concentration of the compounds in the skin layers, compared to controls containing compounds in polyethylene glycol. The DFH promoted an increase in the concentration of PpIX in the stratum corneum (EC) of 2.6 times and in the epidermis + dermis without EC ([E + D]) of 3.4 times, and the cyclam-NO by 2.7 times for EC and 2.4 times in the [E + D]. DFC already increased by 1.6 times the amount of PpIX in EC and 1.9 times at the [E+D] and 4.6 times the amount of cyclam-NO in EC and 2.0 times in the [E + D]. The results may suggest that these systems are suitable for use as potential carriers for the association of cyclam-NO and PpIX for use in skin cancer PDT and that this association showed a synergistic effect, being more efficient than the use of only one of the compounds.