1 |
The American connection and Australian policy in Southeast Asia, 1945-1965Sah Hadiyatan Ismail Unknown Date (has links)
In 1942 Curtin officially turned Australia to the United States for support and regarded the United States as Australia’s ally in World War II. Curtin’s call to the US set a precedent for Australia’s foreign and defence policy to rely on American support. This thesis analyses the Australian effort to become an ally to the Americans in the early 1950s and to increase American interest in the defence of Southeast Asia. ANZUS and SEATO culminated the Australian effort in bringing the Americans to the defence of Southeast Asia and Australia. Australia believed that it had ‘a special relationship’ with the United States through the formation of these treaties and regarded these treaties, especially ANZUS, as the cornerstone of Australia’s defence. The United States, however, did not give any special significance to these treaties and continued to treat Australia as it treated other friendly countries. The main focus of this thesis is on how the American-Australian alliance forged through ANZUS and SEATO influenced Australian foreign policy regarding Southeast Asia, especially in relation to issues such as the West New Guinea sovereignty problem, the defence of Malaya, Konfrontasi and Vietnam. The central argument is to examine how the American connection affected Australian foreign policy in Southeast Asia. As both countries saw the importance of this area to their strategic and defence interest and were heavily involved in the defence of Southeast Asia after World War II, this thesis will analyse on how the Australians reacted to and interacted with the Americans. This thesis reveals that Australia’s suggestions, plans, views and opinions regarding events in Southeast Asia were constantly rejected by the Americans. This rejection however, did not deter the Australian government from continuously pursuing a policy that would impress the United States. Australia tried hard to be a ‘good buddy’ to the Americans and became ever more subservient and submissive to American wishes. Although there were cases where Australia tried to pursue a policy that differed from the Americans, as in West New Guinea prior to 1959 and in the defence of Malaya, these Australian efforts could not sustain pressure from other actors and were doomed to failure without the support of the Americans. The failure to pursue independent policies was influenced by the increasingly dependent attitude of the Australian government towards the Americans and the fear that Australia would be left alone to defend itself. As Britain, Australia’s traditional ally’s influence in Southeast Asia was in decline,Australia perceived that it did not have other choices but to cling ever more tightly and submissively to the Americans for its own survival.
|
2 |
SEATO and the defence of Southeast Asia 1955-1965Fenton, Damien , Humanities & Social Sciences, Australian Defence Force Academy, UNSW January 2006 (has links)
Despite the role played by the South East Treaty Organisation (SEATO) in the defence of Western interests in that region during the Cold War, there has to date been no scholarly attempt to examine the development and performance of the organisation as a military alliance. This thesis is thus the first attempt to do so and as such seeks to take advantage of the recent release of much SEATO-related official material into the public domain by Western governments. This material throws new light upon SEATO???s aims and achievements, particularly in regard to the first ten years of its existence. Because SEATO was eventually rendered irrelevant by the events of the Second Indochina War (1965-1975) a popular perception has arisen that it was always a ???Paper Tiger??? lacking in substance, and thus easily dismissed. This thesis challenges this assumption by examining SEATO???s development in the decade before that conflict. The thesis analyses SEATO???s place in the wider Cold War and finds that it was part of a rational and consistent response within the broader Western strategy of containment to deter, and if need be, defeat, the threat of communist aggression. That threat was a very real one for Southeast Asia in the aftermath of the First Indochina War and one that was initially perceived in terms of the conventional military balance of power. This focus dominated SEATO???s strategic concepts and early contingency planning and rightly so, as an examination of the strength and development of the PLA and PAVN during this period demonstrates. SEATO developed a dedicated military apparatus, principally the Military Planning Office (MPO), that proved itself to be perfectly capable of providing the level of co-ordination and planning needed to produce a credible SEATO deterrent in this regard. SEATO enjoyed less success with its attempts to respond to the emergence of a significant communist insurgent threat, first in Laos then in South Vietnam, but the alliance did nonetheless recognise this threat and the failure of SEATO in this regard was one of political will rather than military doctrine. Indeed this thesis confirms that it was the increasingly disparate political agendas of a number of SEATO???s members that ultimately paralysed its ability to act and thus ensured its failure to meet its aims, at least insofar as the so-called ???Protocol States??? were concerned. But this failure should not be allowed to completely overshadow SEATO???s earlier achievements in providing a modicum of Western-backed stability and security to the region from 1955-1965.
|
3 |
SEATO and the defence of Southeast Asia 1955-1965Fenton, Damien , Humanities & Social Sciences, Australian Defence Force Academy, UNSW January 2006 (has links)
Despite the role played by the South East Treaty Organisation (SEATO) in the defence of Western interests in that region during the Cold War, there has to date been no scholarly attempt to examine the development and performance of the organisation as a military alliance. This thesis is thus the first attempt to do so and as such seeks to take advantage of the recent release of much SEATO-related official material into the public domain by Western governments. This material throws new light upon SEATO???s aims and achievements, particularly in regard to the first ten years of its existence. Because SEATO was eventually rendered irrelevant by the events of the Second Indochina War (1965-1975) a popular perception has arisen that it was always a ???Paper Tiger??? lacking in substance, and thus easily dismissed. This thesis challenges this assumption by examining SEATO???s development in the decade before that conflict. The thesis analyses SEATO???s place in the wider Cold War and finds that it was part of a rational and consistent response within the broader Western strategy of containment to deter, and if need be, defeat, the threat of communist aggression. That threat was a very real one for Southeast Asia in the aftermath of the First Indochina War and one that was initially perceived in terms of the conventional military balance of power. This focus dominated SEATO???s strategic concepts and early contingency planning and rightly so, as an examination of the strength and development of the PLA and PAVN during this period demonstrates. SEATO developed a dedicated military apparatus, principally the Military Planning Office (MPO), that proved itself to be perfectly capable of providing the level of co-ordination and planning needed to produce a credible SEATO deterrent in this regard. SEATO enjoyed less success with its attempts to respond to the emergence of a significant communist insurgent threat, first in Laos then in South Vietnam, but the alliance did nonetheless recognise this threat and the failure of SEATO in this regard was one of political will rather than military doctrine. Indeed this thesis confirms that it was the increasingly disparate political agendas of a number of SEATO???s members that ultimately paralysed its ability to act and thus ensured its failure to meet its aims, at least insofar as the so-called ???Protocol States??? were concerned. But this failure should not be allowed to completely overshadow SEATO???s earlier achievements in providing a modicum of Western-backed stability and security to the region from 1955-1965.
|
4 |
All the Way with LBJ?: Australian Grand Strategy and the Vietnam WarSeddelmeyer, Laura M. 27 April 2009 (has links)
No description available.
|
5 |
From SEATO to ASEAN: Prospects for Collective Security in Southeast AsiaHinton, Joseph R 01 January 2016 (has links)
Recent developments in the South China Sea have shed light on the motivations and capabilities of China. A multilateral ASEAN defense community based on collective security would better situate claimant states to offset a rising China. Unfortunately, the lessons learned from SEATO, and the current internal characteristics of ASEAN, leave little hope for collective security to be achieved in Southeast Asia without superpower intervention.
|
6 |
泰國與東協關係之研究楊明玉, Tongtagorn , Chanokphorn Unknown Date (has links)
若是希望能了解泰國對外之行為,先必須了解泰國外交政策的五點原則:尋找政治保護者原則、反制觀念原則、尋找多邊政治支持者、「風下之竹」與防禦性的外交原則和自主獨立行原則為基礎,可以發現到,由於泰國所處的國際環境使然,其不得不在此一充滿衝突的區域環境中,謀求一套八面玲瓏的生存之道,而在區域環境的變化威脅到國家安全時,採取不同的外交策略,以期能夠將國家利益最大化,並將傷害減至最小。這種靈活彈性的外交手腕,始終維持了泰國國家領土及主權的完整,此種柔性務實的外交策略,確有值得效法之處。
泰國與東協之關係也是如此,泰國政府使用上面的原則為基礎與東協有互動關係,本文以三階段分期作一分析,評析泰國與東協的互動具有下列特點:
第一階段:一九四五年至一九六七年泰國與東協關係之歷史
一、二次世界大戰的經驗,使泰國獲得兩點主要教訓:第一、執行政策與霸權國家有密切關係,但在未來必須準備其他選擇途徑。第二、若是選擇執行中立政策,但不能保護本身不受到敵國的威脅。不如讓泰國和某些霸權國家有同盟關係,以保證自身的安全。 戰後泰國外交政策可分成兩階段:第一階段為戰爭剛結束時,泰國執行中立政策或稱為「先等看之政策」,為了避免種種可能問題,在冷戰初期,泰國沒有決定和哪一派結盟。中立政策一直到中國共產黨內戰獲勝,統治中國,開始有了轉變;第二階段自一九四九年後,稱為「轉變階段」或「泰、美盟國時期」。這一階段對泰國的未來,有著相當大的影響。 當時泰國是持反共政策,擔心共產主義之擴張(尤其來自中共)將威脅泰國國內的穩定。此外,二戰結束後泰國受到英國與法國以若干條件壓迫,美國介入助泰國解決所有問題,使美國成為泰國最主要的盟國。甚至幫泰國引導加入東南亞公約組織(SEATO)。
二、一九五四年九月泰國加入SEATO, SEATO的三個亞洲會員國中,泰國是最主要的,因為泰國是印支半島之中心,對亞洲內的政治發展擁有一定的影響力,並可擴大到海外。因此,泰國是SEATO東南亞安全議題之關鍵,所以一九五五年二月第一次SEATO會議結束後決定在曼谷設立SEATO的總部,並一九五七年三月在曼谷設立了SEATO軍事計劃辦事處。一九五七年七月Pote Sarasin擔任SEATO秘書長更提升泰國在SEATO的主要角色。泰國整期間參與SEATO,其與SEATO互動關係有若干方面包括:政治、軍事、經濟、社會和教育等。泰國參與SEATO之利益:(一)、參與SEATO,擴大使泰國的國際關係與使其政治的決策變寬,並使得泰國和美國及其他霸權國家的關係更為密切,甚至使泰國代表進入為SEATO理事會豐富了泰國的外交、政治及軍事經驗。(二)由於中共計劃擴張權勢,泰國獲得SEATO及美國援助。在危機或戰爭威脅下SEATO的支持會增加泰國的安全。
泰國在SEATO會員地位下,有著如下義務;(一)、支持強國之政策:大部分表現在聯合國的議決,泰國在表決時大部份跟隨著美國、法國及英國的腳步,反對蘇聯立場。事實上,泰國維持其與大國之關係(尤其是美國)的行為,使本身獲得相當利益。(二)、代表SEATO非亞洲國家的會員國,確定他們獲得利益保護;若干亞洲國家懷疑SEATO的目標,擔心帝國主義恢復。泰國的加入,使他們減少此種擔憂,了解SEATO對亞洲國家真正的目的所在。泰國與SEATO的關係使泰國落在危險的地位,被其他國家懷疑立場。另一方面,泰國也積極勸進SEATO依循組織宗旨,援助各殖民地尋求獨立,以避免其他國家對泰國做為西方國家衛星國的指控。在聯合國,如果有關於殖民地的問題,泰國也能站在亞洲國家的立場予以支持。不論如何,從一九六○年寮國危機爆發,使泰國領導者重新考慮SEATO的效能以及積極要求與美國雙邊關係的保障,使得一九六二年三月泰美簽署「他納-魯斯克協定(Thanat-Rusk Joint Communique)」,使兩國關係更加密切。從他納-魯斯克協定可發現泰國對SEATO的堅信減少。
三、從參與SEATO之經驗,使泰國領導者也開始認知到,若是僅靠西方的霸權國家,長期而言是弊大於利的。因此,泰國重新調整外交策略,支持與東南亞國家進行合作,也擴大其選擇空間。泰國認為建立新組織取代SEATO時,必須尋找本區域的國家,因為彼此有共同的利益。當時菲律賓和馬來西亞也與泰國有共同的概念。因此,泰菲馬討論成立新區域組織,泰國提議強調新區域組織應該重視經濟合作,主張區域經濟互賴、提昇出口基本產品、管理市場及控制售價。泰國認為組織結構應簡化,包括永久總部、但維持較小型的管理體系,強調實踐的合作。馬菲同意泰國所提出之概念。終於,一九六一年七月三十一日,馬、菲、泰三國在曼谷組成東南亞協會(Association of Southeast Asia, ASA),並發表曼谷宣言(Bangkok Declaration)。
一九六二年底至一九六三年初,組織活動開始減緩,因為印尼、馬來西亞與菲律賓間,對沙巴主權的爭議,終於使ASA的活動完全停頓。當菲律賓、馬來西亞及印尼發生衝突時,泰國扮演調停者的角色,由泰國外長他納花了幾個月,終於馬、菲和印尼三國,看見泰國的善意,願到曼谷進行會談,解決所有的衝突問題,結束自一九六三年初以來的對抗、僵持關係。一九六五年九月後,泰、馬、菲和印開始討論關於ASA之未來,此外其也決定納入新加坡為會員,總之,在一九六七年八月八日,五國外長在曼谷集會,同意將「東南亞協會」擴大為「東南亞國家協會(Association of Southeast Asian Nations, ASEAN)」,並發表「曼谷宣言」, 而使ASA也走上了解散的命運。
第二階段:冷戰時期泰國與東協關係
一、因而在冷戰時期國際情勢轉變,尤其是美國撤離東南亞地區,為了符合該轉變,使泰國必須調整本身的外交政策。此外,泰國政府認為國家的穩固和發展,與鄰國的穩定有密切關係,各國之合作將會影響區域的前途。該概念使得泰國參與東協,泰國參與該組織有明顯的目標,即是為了本國的穩固和經濟利益。泰國選擇以東協作為本身外交政策核心的戰略。泰國調整外交政策,以東協取代美國撤離東南亞區域的權力空缺。因為泰國認為,東協將是泰國在國際政治上討價還價之重要手段。從一九七六年後,泰國政府相當重視東協為泰國外交的核心政策之一部分。冷戰時期,泰國在短期和長期之外交政策可總結為:支持東協的合作和創造東南亞之統一性,依循組織的宗旨,促進經濟與社會發展,以及推動政治合作,包括致力於解決對區域的穩固和安全有影響的任何問題,以使東南亞地區成為真正的和平區與中立地帶。此外,與各國促進經濟和貿易關係,不論彼此的政治體系差異。最後則是與各國改善關係,形成各東南亞會員國之共同利益。從前面的政策引導,冷戰時期泰國在東南亞地區所扮演的區域保護者與調停者角色。
二、從一九六七年泰國參與東協後,東協的活動對經濟、政治、文化之合作,以及會員國的穩定鞏固問題上,重要性日益擴張。同時泰國政府之政策,是希望利用東協達成其經濟和政治之目標。一九七六年八月三十日,泰國政府頒布條例,成立泰國的東協辦事處(Thailand ’s ASEAN National Secretariat),屬外交部之下的單位。其地位等於「司」,任務則是主管有關東協的事項。在一九七七年一月十二日,政府頒布法令,將東協辦事處分為四組。 一九八四年七月二十七日政府發布條例,將東協辦事處改名為東協司,但職能未變。此後,為了符合國際情勢之轉變和國家的利益,東協司仍調整單位內的機制三次:一九九一年、一九九九年和二○○三年。從一九七五年至冷戰結束泰國外交,從泰國外交部調整機制有主要的關注考量是強調安全與穩固方面,尤其在面臨柬埔寨問題,泰國傾注全力解決該問題,因而其認為該事項與泰國的生存有密切關係。但在調整機制三次後,可發現符合冷戰結束泰國外交政策之轉變為重視經濟方面為主。
三、一九七八年十二月廿四日,越南揮軍入侵柬埔寨,使東協各國感到莫大之安全威脅尤其是泰國:成為「前線」國家。在泰國執行解決柬埔寨問題之方針:(一)、尋找方式使越南撤軍,離開柬埔寨和寮國,並使兩國恢復和平及獨立主權,因而泰國將不需要處理難民問題,也不用面臨邊境穩定與否的問題;(二)、泰國希望柬埔寨與寮國有獨立主權,因其認為兩國是泰越間之緩衝國;(三)、泰國希望越南脫離蘇聯之權力範圍,使泰國不必擔心蘇聯擴張權勢接近甚至進入泰國境內。泰國政府為了達成上面三點的目標,而執行解決越柬戰爭問題之政策,可分為兩個方式;(一)、外交途徑;透過東協與聯合國,堅持由柬民決定自己的命運,外國不應干涉,並強迫越南全面撤軍離開柬埔寨。(二)、經濟壓力;使越南受到全面壓力, 強迫河內接受泰國要求。在解決柬埔寨過程中,雖然有時東協會員國對解決該問題之意見有差異,不過東協總都支持泰國的提議與方式。因而東協不要泰國與中共有密切關係引起東協內部對柬埔寨問題的態度分歧。換言之,東協支持泰國的提議,因為其不需要霸權國干涉本區域內的事項。
泰國與東協在解決柬埔寨合作的主要轉變是於一九八八年八月四日察猜上台後,他提出「化印支戰場為市場」的策略,其調整對印支國家的態度,以更有彈性的主張,透過經濟方式來維繫國家之間的關係。其內涵已明顯從「對抗」轉入「共存」,從「緊張」轉入「和解」。在中南半島上自行產生的新主義,目的是追求區域內各國的利益,而非實現超強國家的野心。察猜對柬埔寨問題政策改變的主要因素為:察猜和察猜政府顧問之角色與軍方和內閣之態度。差猜的提議改變了泰國與東協解決柬埔寨的問題作法,以及此引發了察猜政府與外交部之間的衝突。甚至,該計劃也被認為是破壞東協的團結。不論如何,差猜的「化印支戰場為市場」政策,也是解決柬埔寨問題的主要因素之一,並引起東南亞地區脫離政治和安全問題走向新世紀經濟整合發展時代。
在解決柬埔寨問題方面符合泰國國家利益。泰國外交部表示:「我們認為東協是泰國利用的其中之一的外交工具,為了使泰國達成或維持國家的利益。泰國在選擇使哪個工具來解決哪個問題,必須考慮到當時哪個工具對那個事項能達成最高的效能。如柬埔寨問題泰國政府認為使用東協為工具將獲得解決問題最高的效能。」
第三階段:後冷戰泰國與東協之關係
一、後冷戰泰國對東協政策,以三個政策為主導:察猜政府的「化中南半島戰場為商場」政策、安南德政府的「建設性交往」(Constructive Engagement)政策和查華利的「完整的區域主義」(Complete Regionalism)政策為主導。雖然,泰國三個政府之外交政策之名稱差異,卻有同樣的目標,即是其使泰國獲得經濟利益(進入印支半島和緬甸市場)和加強泰國在區域之角色(使泰國成為東南亞的領導者)。因此,東協擴張之政策泰國也扮演主要的角色,尤其是緬甸的事項。泰國推動和支持東協擴張,一方面為在經濟方面加強貿易和投資擴張;另外在政治和安全方面,因為四分之三的新東協會員與泰國有領土接壤(緬甸、寮國和柬埔寨)。而其希望以東協擴張之關係,與鄰國解決毒品問題、劃定邊境問題和武裝衝突等。總之,東協擴張對泰國十分有利,不但增加泰國的貿易和投資成長率、援助泰國解決鄰國的煩惱問題,並加強泰國在東南亞區域之角色。
二、一九九八年七月二十四日泰國所提出的「彈性交往」新主張打破了一九六七年東協不「干預他國內政」的原則,使東協會員可以直接對區域任何問題表示意見。從這主張反映出,泰國以歷史的經驗與其關心本區域未來的問題作一融合,尤其是在東協擴張之事項,使東協有預防衝突或提醒危機預警的機制。要是東協會員國間能夠真正的體認這種新東協精神,東協會員國必可達到互相輔助成長,減少許多的經濟和社會成本,進而達成真正團結而統一的東協。雖然泰國的「彈性交往」被多數的東協會員拒絕,但是至少泰國「彈性交往」新主張,表示泰國對東協的重視,希望以該主張使東協各會員對本區域的共同責任。
三、一九九九年十一月二十八日泰國首相乃川,提出「東協三人小組」(ASEAN Troika)的機制。此機制提出的用意是:使東協能夠適時處理緊急且重要的區域性政治與安全議題,及其他可能導致此地區和平與和諧危害的相關事宜。泰國提出「東協三人小組」的原則,是其第二次企圖成立東協穩固機制。為了促進東協會員彼此的合作,提醒任何對區域有影響以及使幫助東協會員合作尋找解決問題的方式,甚至希望能使東協會員團結。雖然該原則不能使各會員滿意,但其至少是一個方式使東協解決任何問題,可知泰國對區域有多麼關心。
泰國在成立AFTA的過程中,扮演相當主要的角色,尤其是泰國首相安南德和其專家工作小組,以若干方式解決成立AFTA的障礙,使各東協會員國支持及簽署成立AFTA之協定。在堆動成立AFTA的成就是泰國區域經濟合作的最主要業績之一。泰國以外交方式說服了東協會員同意和簽署成立自由貿易區協定,在過程中,泰國以外交方式說服東協會員同意和簽署成立自由貿易區協定,展現了以下三項執行外交政策之能力:
一、增進東協會員對泰國立場瞭解的能力:這一連串的工作並不只是為了泰國己身的利益,或是要控制東協,而是為了東協共同的利益。安南德的在各地總是表示:「這是高於一切的目標,即東協會員國必須有堅定的政治意志(political will),以及必須將該意志徹底落實,有效執行,促進區域合作。減少只重視本國短期利益的情形,必須強調區域的長期利益。」
二、泰國整合東協會員國觀念的能力:例如引入印尼的CEPT作為AFTA的主要機制,或是調整想法以與其他東協國家求取調和,都是使各會員支持泰國成立AFTA提議的主要因素。
三、泰國妥協的能力:為了結合各國的利益,泰國不斷說服東協會員國,要求他們支持成立AFTA之提議,終於在第四屆東協高峰會,六個東協領袖簽署成立AFTA的協定。
在AFTA成立後,泰國也不斷扮演主要的角色,從主辦關於AFTA之活動、提出若干措施,使AFTA早日達成目標,泰國所推動的不僅是取爭本身的利益,並且希望東協成為經濟強大的組織,甚至在國際舞台上有討價還價的能力及競爭力。泰國參與東協自由貿易區(AFTA)對泰國貿易和投資十分有利,總之,泰國參與AFTA之影響有:
1.東協關稅降低,使泰國產品的價格降低,增加泰國出口競爭力。
2.泰國關稅降低,使泰國從東協進口原料和半成品價格低,也使泰國生產成本降低,增加泰國的出口力。
3.消費者可以更便宜地買消費品。
4.堅實及擴大市場之基礎,使東協各國均吸引外國的投資,尤其泰國有若干方面的優點,例如:有能力的勞工、市場範圍大、社會公開、便利的公共設施,以及泰國可作為印支半島國家進出大門,使泰國成為最吸引外資的國家。
5.東協內的競爭,使泰國開始調整本身產業效能和發展技術。
6.東協內的進出口擴張,使泰國減少對其他國家貿易的依賴。
四、ARF是亞太地區的安全組織之一,由東協扮演主要角色,泰國也是ARF的創始國之一,並且一九九四年第一屆ARF會議在泰國曼谷舉行。泰國總是重視和支持ARF的活動,甚至在ARF中企圖提出新概念。在一九九九年至二○○○年泰國外長蘇林擔任ARF主席,他更加強泰國在ARF的角色。蘇林在擔任ARF主席的主要成就包括:
(一)、推動北韓為ARF會員:這事項對亞太地區安全有助益,也有助本地的和平和穩固。
(二)、促進ARF和東協扮演援助解決東帝汶的問題的角色:從東帝汶內政發生暴動,泰國主動要求東協和ARF會員國進入東帝汶提供援助以及參與聯合國和平部隊。其不僅是維持區域的和平和穩定,這與其他組織合作,尤其是聯合國,此外也使東協會員和ARF有機會合作維持本區域的和平,使國際社會認知到本區域的團結。泰國在東帝汶維持和平行動之領導角色,其獲得非常大的成就,並廣為國際社會所接受。
(三)、推動擴張ARF與其他集體安全組織之地位:例如歐洲安全與合作組織(OSCE)和美洲國家組織(OAS)等:泰國外長蘇林所推動的目標為了希望ARF在國際舞台上增加自己的角色、經驗和盟國,甚至使國際承認ARF為世界主要的集體安全之一組織。泰國仍繼續推動ARF與OSEC間的活動。
(四)、從一九九九年底北韓核武危機爆發,受到全球國家關注,泰國自不例外。雖然泰國僅是一個亞洲小國,但在該問題上所扮演的角色仍不可忽略。泰國其不僅對該問題表示關心,也積極提出若干方式解決問題,尤其以推動ARF作為解決北韓核武危機之平台,以及提出應加重ARF主席對區域問題之角色的提議等。
|
Page generated in 0.0218 seconds