L’étude, la détection et l’identification de pathogènes est une problématique majeure pour la sécurité alimentaire et la médecine. Cependant, les pathogènes bactériens présents à de faibles concentrations nécessitent souvent une période de plus de 36h pour être identifiés par les méthodes standards. Ce délai est extrêmement contraignant pour des domaines où la rapidité du diagnostic est un facteur clé. Il y a donc une forte demande pour le développement d’outils pour mieux comprendre le comportement bactérien et ainsi développer des techniques de détection plus rapides et plus performantes.Les systèmes d’imagerie SPR sont largement utilisés pour l’analyse d’interactions moléculaires, car ils permettent une mesure en parallèle, en temps réel et sans marquage, tout en étant faciles d’utilisation et compatibles avec des milieux complexes. Cette technique a montré son efficacité pour l'étude et la détection de bactéries en utilisant les interactions moléculaires avec les anticorps, mais les délais de détection restent pénalisants.Dans ce contexte, un nouveau système d’imagerie permettant l’étude et la détection spécifique de pathogènes bactériens performant est développé en mettant à profit les avancées récentes en imagerie SPR optimisée en résolution. Notre système permet d'améliorer les temps de détection de pathogènes en milieux modèles grâce à sa capacité à détecter des bactéries individuelles. Il peut également être utilisé pour l'étude de l'interaction entre bactéries et surfaces spécifiques. Des premiers tests montrent que notre instrument est capable de caractériser le comportement bactérien de plusieurs souches bactériennes en interaction avec des surfaces fonctionnalisées par des espèces chimiques différentes / The study, detection and identification of pathogens is a major issue for food safety and medicine. However, bacterial pathogens present at low concentrations often require a period of more than 36 hours to be identified by standard methods. This delay is extremely constraining for areas where rapid diagnosis is a key factor. There is therefore a strong demand for the development of tools to better understand bacterial behavior and thus develop faster and more efficient detection techniques.SPR imaging systems are widely used for the analysis of molecular interactions, as they allow parallel, real-time and unlabeled measurement, while being easy to use and compatible with complex media. This technique has proven effective in the study and detection of bacteria using molecular interactions with antibodies, but detection times remain penalizing.In this context, a new imaging system allowing the study and specific detection of high-performance bacterial pathogens is being developed, taking advantage of recent advances in SPR imaging optimized in resolution. Our system improves pathogen detection times in model environments through its ability to detect individual bacteria. It can also be used to study the interaction between bacteria and specific surfaces. Initial tests show that our instrument is capable of characterizing the bacterial behaviour of several bacterial strains in interaction with surfaces functionalized by different chemical species.

Une pléthore de processus biologiquement pertinents dépend directement de la sécrétion de biomolécules dans le milieu extracellulaire, aux fonctions régulatrices ou composants structurels. L’analyse de processus biologiques complexes nécessite ainsi la mise au point de nouveaux outils de biodétection. Par conséquent, le but de cette thèse est de fournir des stratégies polyvalentes pour la génération de biocapteurs et de biopuces innovants basés sur la Résonance des Plasmons de Surface (SPR). À l’issue de ces travaux, une méthode de photofonctionnalisation indirecte a été mise au point. Ce procédé a permis de générer des micro-réseaux de protéines dans des conditions entièrement aqueuses, et ainsi de préserver la fonctionnalité des protéines greffées. De plus, nous avons créé et évalué une nouvelle biopuce SPR microstructurée pour le suivi en temps réel des sécrétions cellulaires. Cette biopuce microstructurée présente deux phénomènes optiques différents qui peuvent être utilisés pour la détection cellulaire et le suivi de leurs sécrétions. Enfin, de multiples stratégies de fonctionnalisation ont été évaluées pour la conception d’une biopuce SPR nanostructurée à faisceau de fibres optiques. Parmi ces approches, la génération de monocouches photoréactives auto-assemblées a été la plus adaptée à ce système et est en cours d’optimisation. Une fois réalisée, cette biopuce nanostructurée pourrait ouvrir la voie à la poursuite du développement de systèmes prometteurs de biodétection in vivo. / A plethora of biologically relevant processes depends directly on the effective secretion of biomolecules, from regulatory molecules to structural components. Thus, the analysis of complex biological processes requires the development of novel biosensing tools. Therefore, the aim of this thesis is to provide versatile strategies for the generation of innovative biosensors and biochips based on Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR). As a result from this research, an indirect photofunctionalization method was developed. This procedure allowed the generation of protein microarrays in fully aqueous conditions while preserving the functionality of the grafted proteins. Furthermore, we created and evaluated a novel microstructured SPR biochip for real-time monitoring of cellular secretions. This microstructured biochip presents two different optical phenomena which could be used for cell detection and the monitoring of their secretions. Finally, multiple functionalization strategies were evaluated for the conception of a nanostructured fiber-bundle SPR biochip. Among the approaches, the generation of photoreactive self-assembled monolayers was the most adapted to this system and currently is being optimized. Once achieved, this nanostructured biochip could pave the way for further development of promising in vivo biosensing systems.

New methods and technology are needed to detect biological agents that threaten the health of humans and domestic animals. The bacterium Bacillus anthracis, causal agent of anthrax, has been used as a biological warfare agent. Here, we extend the work of Chinowksy et al. (2007) to the detection of a surrogate of B. anthracis, B. globigii (also known as B. atrophaeus, B. subtilis var. niger, B. subtilis var. subtilis) in a mixed sample containing two different species of Bacillus using a portable surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensor (SPIRIT 4.0, Seattle Sensor Systems). Two methods (direct capture and antibody injection) were used to determine the limit of detection for spores of B. globigii and to detect spores of B. globigii in a mixed sample containing at least one other Bacillus spp. Spores of B. globigii were detected on freshly coated sensors (not previously exposed to spores) with direct capture at a minimum concentration of 10^7 spores/mL, and with antibody injection at a concentration of 10^5 spores/mL. Spores of B. globigii were also detected when mixed with B. pumilus spores in the same sample at equal concentrations (107 spores/mL) using antibody injection. An SPR method using synthetic miRNA was adapted to the portable SPR unit (SPIRIT), and preliminary experiments suggested that the target sequence could be detected. SPR methods using nucleic acids have an exciting future in the detection of biological agents, such as B. anthracis. With the availability of portable instrumentation to accurately detect biological warfare agents such as B. anthracis, emergency responders can implement emergency protocols in a timely fashion, limiting the amount of people and domestic animals exposed. / Master of Science

Dans un avenir proche, les dispositifs de détection médicaux miniaturisés en temps réels (lab-on-chip) seront au centre de la révolution des méthodes de diagnostics médicaux et d’identification des processus biologiques et cela, autant au niveau clinique qu’au niveau de la recherche. Pour y arriver, il est important de développer des chimies de surface stables et spécifiques, ce qui demande une compréhension des interactions intermoléculaires à l’interface liquide/solide. Pour bien comprendre ces interactions, il est important de développer des instruments adaptés à la mesure près de l’interface liquide/solide des différentes caractéristiques à identifier. Ce projet de recherche présente la conception, la fabrication et les expériences tests d’un capteur multimodal pour l’identification de processus biologiques à l’interface basés sur des technologies de résonance des plasmons de surface (SPR) et de microcalorimétrie. Ces deux technologies mises ensemble vont permettre d’effectuer des mesures de la cinétique des interactions ainsi que des caractéristiques thermodynamiques. En premier lieu, les caractéristiques d’une interaction intermoléculaire à l’interface d’une réaction d’hybridation d’ADN furent définies afin d’en déduire un cahier des charges pour les transducteurs. Suite à cela, la conception des transducteurs microcalorimétriques et SPR furent réalisés en tenant compte des contraintes de chacun des transducteurs. Suite à la conception théorique des différentes parties du capteur, un procédé de fabrication compatible avec les méthodes de fabrication standard de la microélectronique fut défini et testé. Afin de s’assurer de la fonctionnalité des dispositifs ainsi fabriqués, des tests de fonctionnalisation de surface furent appliqués sur les échantillons afin de tester la compatibilité du procédé de fonctionnalisation avec les méthodes de fabrication et avec une chimie de surface type. Pour terminer, un système de mélange actif fut testé et caractérisé avec le dispositif de microcalorimétrie afin de s’assurer qu’il était possible de mélanger les fluides avec les produits biologiques pour s’assurer de la qualité de la réaction de surface. Le système développé pourra être utilisé pour effectuer la mesure d’hybridation d’ADN à l’interface. Le système intègre deux modalités permettant la caractérisation en temps réel des interactions intermoléculaires à l’interface liquide/solide. Ce type de système permet la mesure de la cinétique de différents modèles biologiques tels que les puces à sucre encore certains récepteurs cellulaires ou la mesure de conformation moléculaire à l’interface. Des mesures d’oxydation du glucose catalysée par la glucose oxydase sont montrées.

<p>Inferring phylogeny is a difficult computational problem. Heuristics are necessary to minimize the time spent evaluating non optimal trees. In paper I, we developed an approach for heuristic searching, using a genetic algorithm. Genetic algorithms mimic the natural selections ability to solve complex problems. The algorithm can reduce the time required for weighted maximum parsimony phylogenetic inference using protein sequences, especially for data sets involving large number of taxa. </p><p>Evaluating and comparing the ability of phylogenetic methods to infer the correct topology is complex. In paper II, we developed software that determines the minimum subtree prune and regraft (SPR) distance between binary trees to ease the process. The minimum SPR distance can be used to measure the incongruence between trees inferred using different methods. Given a known topology the methods could be evaluated on their ability to infer the correct phylogeny given specific data. </p><p>The minimum SPR software the intermediate trees that separate two binary trees. In paper III we developed software that given a set of incongruent trees determines the median SPR consensus tree i.e. the tree that explains the trees with a minimum of SPR operations. We investigated the median SPR consensus tree and its possible interpretation as a species tree given a set of gene trees. We used a set of α-proteobacteria gene trees to test the ability of the algorithm to infer a species tree and compared it to previous studies. The results show that the algorithm can successfully reconstruct a species tree.</p><p>Expressed sequence tag (EST) data is important in determining intron-exon boundaries, single nucleotide polymorphism and the coding sequence of genes. In paper IV we aligned ESTs to the genome to evaluate the quality of EST data. The results show that many ESTs are contaminated by vector sequences and low quality regions. The reliability of EST data is largely determined by the clustering of the ESTs and the association of the clusters to the correct portion of genome. We investigate the performance of EST clustering using the genome as template compared to previously existing methods using pair-wise alignments. The results show that using the genome as guidance improves the resulting EST clusters in respect to the extent ESTs originating from the same transcriptional unit are separated into disjunct clusters. </p>

Inferring phylogeny is a difficult computational problem. Heuristics are necessary to minimize the time spent evaluating non optimal trees. In paper I, we developed an approach for heuristic searching, using a genetic algorithm. Genetic algorithms mimic the natural selections ability to solve complex problems. The algorithm can reduce the time required for weighted maximum parsimony phylogenetic inference using protein sequences, especially for data sets involving large number of taxa. Evaluating and comparing the ability of phylogenetic methods to infer the correct topology is complex. In paper II, we developed software that determines the minimum subtree prune and regraft (SPR) distance between binary trees to ease the process. The minimum SPR distance can be used to measure the incongruence between trees inferred using different methods. Given a known topology the methods could be evaluated on their ability to infer the correct phylogeny given specific data. The minimum SPR software the intermediate trees that separate two binary trees. In paper III we developed software that given a set of incongruent trees determines the median SPR consensus tree i.e. the tree that explains the trees with a minimum of SPR operations. We investigated the median SPR consensus tree and its possible interpretation as a species tree given a set of gene trees. We used a set of α-proteobacteria gene trees to test the ability of the algorithm to infer a species tree and compared it to previous studies. The results show that the algorithm can successfully reconstruct a species tree. Expressed sequence tag (EST) data is important in determining intron-exon boundaries, single nucleotide polymorphism and the coding sequence of genes. In paper IV we aligned ESTs to the genome to evaluate the quality of EST data. The results show that many ESTs are contaminated by vector sequences and low quality regions. The reliability of EST data is largely determined by the clustering of the ESTs and the association of the clusters to the correct portion of genome. We investigate the performance of EST clustering using the genome as template compared to previously existing methods using pair-wise alignments. The results show that using the genome as guidance improves the resulting EST clusters in respect to the extent ESTs originating from the same transcriptional unit are separated into disjunct clusters.

In this project a method based on surface plasmon resonance has been developed for determining the concentration of several His-tagged proteins in complex solutions. It showed large dynamic range, no measureable non-specific binding and high sensitivity (with linear range around 0.1–10 μg/ml depending on the proteins). The method showed a low variation when checked on MBP-His during an extended time period. The concentrations of the His-tagged protein in the lysate has also been determined and compared with other alternative methods. This method will later be used to analyse protein concentrations during development and optimization of chromatographic purification process.

Alzheimer’s disease is neurodegenerative with amyloid plaque and neurofibrillary tangles as pathological hallmarks. The most abundant component in the amyloid plaque is the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide, with presence of both isoform Aβ40 and Aβ42. In immunological methods studying the Aβ peptide a specific monoclonal antibody, 6E10, is routinly being used. In this master thesis work unspecific binding of 6E10 antibody to the blood coagulating protein factor X has been investigated. Factor X is a protein in the blood coagulation cascade where it forms protein complex that activates thrombin. Non-hemostatic functions with connections to nerves and Aβ peptide are also known. Studies with Western blot show clear binding of 6E10 to denatured factor X. Interaction studies with ELISA gives uncertain results, where binding is found but no clear binding curve is obtained. Studies with native factor X in real time measurements with SPR gave no binding at all. These results suggest binding to denatured factor X. Immunohistochemistry studies of colocalisation of factor X and Aβ peptide gave clear evidence that factor X and Aβ are found near each other in mouse brain tissue. Factor X is located outside the blood vessels and Aβ is located at the inside.

Electron-excited surface plasmon resonance (eSPR) is investigated for potential use in biosensors. Optical SPR sensors are commercially available at present and these sensors are extremely sensitive, but have the tendency to be relatively large, expensive, and ignore the potentials of microelectronic technology. By employing the use of various microelectronic and nanotechnology principles, the goal is to eventually design a device that exploits the eSPR phenomenon in order to make a sensor which is siginificantly smaller in size, more robust, and cheaper in cost.

<p>A capture step with protein A is the most common purification step in the downstream purification process of monoclonal antibodies. It is therefore of great importance to increase the knowledge of the interactions involved in this purification technique. The purpose of this master thesis project was to determine the affinity of protein A domains to IgG subclasses by surface plasmon resonance (SPR).</p><p>Besides the five homologous IgG-binding protein A domains (E, D, A, B, and C) an engineered domain, similar to domain B and used in the protein A media MabSelect Sure™ (GE Healthcare) was included in the study. The domains were expressed in E.coli, affinity purified and immobilized onto sensor chip surfaces by amine coupling. The antibodies used in the interaction analyses were of the human IgG subclasses 1, 2, 3, and 4. Affinity determination was performed by kinetic analyses with the SPR-biosensor Biacore™ 2000.</p><p>All human IgG subclasses except IgG3 were shown to bind to all protein A domains including the monomer of the SuRe ligand. The equilibrium constants, KD-values, obtained were all in the low nanomolar range. For IgG1 and IgG4, no significantly differences in the affinity to any of the protein A domains were found, except for domain E where there might be quality issues of the prepared domain. Furthermore, a detected quality issue with the commercial IgG2 made it impossible to determine the KD-values for this subclass with any reliability.</p>