The purpose of this research is to describe and to compare the morphology of megalopa and the first crab of four Scylla species which lives along the coast of Tungkang. The megalopa of S. serrata has dactyl lower margin on the fifth abdominal segment which is different from three other Scylla species. S. olivacea has setae number of 4,4 combination on both sides of the basal segment of antenna. It is different from three other species which are either ¡§ 3,3¡¨ or ¡§ 3,4¡¨ or ¡§ 4,3¡¨ combination. S. tranquebarica has setae number of 4,5 combination on the last two segments of antennule. It is different from three other species, which have 3,3 combination. In addition, these four kinds of megalopa are different on the fifth pleopod, third maxilliped and fifth pereiopod. Furthermore, megalopa of four Scylla species have significant differences in their shape and size. For example, S. olivacea is the largest one in both rostral width and carapace length, followed by S. serrata, S. paramamosain, and S. tranquebarica is the smallest one. In the first crab, as adult, significant differences are found on the frontal median spines and chelipeds. From September 1999 to September 2000, megalopae of four Scylla species were collected from the coast and offshore of Linpien and Fanzilum. Large amount of megalopa can be identified in to species using of one-step multiplex PCR. Results showed that S. paramamosain is the most abundant (67.7¡Ó21.5%) , followed by S. serrata (19.3¡Ó15.5%), S. olivacea (12.3¡Ó11.9%), and S. tranquebarica (0.7¡Ó1.7%) is the least one. Most of the megalopa (77.1%) molted during the night. The megalopa caught from coast took one day (p<0.001) less to become the first crab than those caught from offshore. S. paramamosain took one day more than S. serrata and S. olivacea.Salinity doesn¡¦t affect the time of molt.

The edible mud crab, genus Scylla, is important to fisheries and aquaculture throughout the Indo Pacific region, but its taxonomic status has been confused for decades and a new classification has only recently been proposed. This project was undertaken to investigate the species status of mud crabs in Southeast Asia, with a view to deciding whether two sympatric morphs of Scylla found in Ban Don Bay, Surat Thani Province, Thailand, are two separate species. A further aim was to elucidate any possible pre-zygotic reproductive isolating mechanisms (RIMs) and ecological features that maintain the apparent sympatry between these two morphs. Mud crabs were collected from a primary site (Surat Thani, Thailand) as well as from six other locations in Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. Crab samples from the latter sites were used selectively to provide a comparison to the primary study site. Descriptive taxonomy, multivariate morphometrics and allozyme electrophoresis were used to a) determine the number of species present within the crab samples collected; b) to ascertain which species they represent; c) to discover any geographical variation between locations sampled; d) to produce a possible phylogeny that summaries the relationship between Scylla species; and e) to look for pre-zygotic RIMs to explain the sympatry of the two morphs in Surat Thani. Findings from the present study reinforce the recent revision of the taxonomy of the genus Scylla into four species, S. serrata, S. olivacea, S. tranquebarica and S. paramamosain and provides new information on two of the four species which are dominant within Southeast Asia, including Ban Don Bay, Surat Thani Province, S. paramamosain and S. olivacea. Population studies showed both genetic and morphological differentiation between conspecific populations of S. paramamosain and S. olivacea, indicating stock structure for each species, although there is some disparity between morphological and genetic distances for S. paramamosain. This is discussed in relation to the effects of larval dispersal mechanisms and the subsequent recruitment of juvenile crabs. Phylogenetic interpretation of both genetic and morphological characters revealed that both S. serrata and S. olivacea are the most diverged of the four Scylla species; however, the direction of evolution is open to interpretation and the evidence for either S. olivacea or S. serrata as the more primitive species are discussed. Reproductive studies on the two mud crab species found in Surat Thani revealed no physical barrier to hybridization. Both species have a protracted breeding season which continues throughout the year. However, the size at first sexual maturity was significantly smaller for S. olivacea when compared to S. paramamosain. This and other potential mechanisms that may maintain these two species sympatrically are discussed. The clarification of four Scylla species, and the establishment of diagnostic genetic and morphological characters that can be used to identify them, means that research can now focus on both the ecology and life history of these closely related species. Such information is needed urgently with respect to fisheries management as well as to understanding the environmental requirements of each species in order to develop their potential for aquaculture.

The source of a reliable supply of seed is one of the most important factors determining the success of aquaculture. At present mud crab culture is reliant on wild caught juveniles, which limits the expansion of mud crab farming globally. This, coupled with the paucity of knowledge of the spawning and egg characteristics of mud crabs, prompted the investigation into the captive spawning, incubation and egg quality of Scylla serrata in South Africa. A total of 112 mature females were caught from three estuaries in northern KwaZulu Natal and acclimated to captive conditions. Mature females were present in the estuaries throughout the year and ranged from 90 to 200 mm carapace width. Except for 40 crabs all the females spawned in captivity. On average spawning took place 38 ± 23 days after capture but was not dependent on crab size. Fecundity was significantly correlated to crab size (p = 0.026), with larger females producing more eggs. The average fecundity per batch was 5.79 ± 2.07 million eggs. Hatch success rate for all egg batches was high averaging 84 ± 6 %. Egg dropping occurred in all egg batches during incubation. On average 6.5 % of the egg mass was dropped during incubation. At the average temperature of 27⁰C eggs in the incubation system hatched within 292 ± 12 hours after extrusion. In-vitro incubation of eggs proved to be an ineffective means of incubating Scylla serrata eggs with a hatch success rate of only 25 ± 5 %. Egg quality was assessed both directly, using variables such as hatch success rate and hatch synchronicity and retrospectively by using stress tests and comparing survival of larvae from different coloured egg batches. Lipid class composition and fatty acid methyl ester content for 28 batches of eggs and 16 batches of larvae were analyzed. The biochemical composition of the egg was correlated to survival of larvae in the stress tests to ascertain if the lipid content of the eggs determines their quality. Stress tests were used to retrospectively assess egg quality. Four stressors were administered to newly hatched larvae and the LD50 values recorded. An average LD50 of 64 hours was recorded for the starvation tests, 40% for the salinity tests, 37 ppm for the formalin tests and 39.7 mg/l NH3 for the ammonia stress tests was recorded. Egg colour ranged from pale yellow to orange-red. Egg colour was not influenced by female size or the time the females spent in captivity prior to spawning. Egg colour can therefore not be used as an indicator of quality. The lipid profiles of newly extruded eggs had no effect on hatch synchronicity or hatch success rate. However, the stress tests identified female size (p ≤ 0.02), DHA content of the egg (p ≤ 0.02), Σ omega-3 fatty acids of eggs (p ≤ 0.02) and EPA content of eggs (p ≤ 0.007) as possible determinants of egg quality. Larger crabs tended to produce poorer quality eggs. Egg quality also decreased as the amount of DHA, EPA and the Σ omega-3 fatty acids decreased in the eggs. To summarize, the results of this study indicated that the following parameters affect egg quality - crab size, DHA, EPA and Σ omega-3 fatty acid content of eggs.

No description available.

Mud crabs of the genus Scylla are widely exploited for aquaculture in the Asia- Pacific region. In the current study, a series of in vivo experiments were carried to assess the protein requirement, protein sparing effects of starch and the capacity of Scylla serrata to digest diets that contained different animal and plant-based feed meals and different levels and types of starch. Results from a protein requirement study indicated that juvenile S. serrata fed diets containing 45% or 55% protein demonstrated significantly higher growth responses than those fed the diet containing 25% protein. The subsequent study was carried out to determine if responses to dietary protein could be influenced by using purified wheat, potato, rice or corn starch to manipulate the gross energy level of fishmeal- based diets (18 or 15.5 MJ kg-1), i.e., to see if starch had a protein sparing effect in these animals. Overall, growth responses in this study appeared to be positively correlated with the level of protein in the diet with the highest growth rates achieved using diets containing 45% protein, regardless of the energy level of the diet. In addition, at a dietary protein level of 40% there was no evidence that the source of starch had any significant impact on growth performance or feed utilisation suggesting it had no protein sparing effect. By contrast, it was found that growth of juvenile S. serrata was strongly correlated with the intake of digestible dietary protein. The investigation of the capacity of sub-adult S. serrata to digest different animal and plant- based feed meals showed that apparent dry matter digestibility (ADMD) and apparent gross energy digestibility (AGED) values were not significant different for most selected feed meals (cotton seed, poultry, canola, fishmeal, soybean, and lupin meal). Apparent crude protein digestibility (ACPD) for all test feed meals were relatively high (86-96%). A subsequent study was carried out to determine if purified starch from different sources influenced the digestibility of fishmeal based diets. Overall, most diets containing starch were readily digested by mud crabs. In particular, there were no negative impacts on the digestibility of major nutrients (e.g. protein) observed following the inclusion of wheat, rice or corn starch in formulated feeds. Nevertheless, the apparent starch digestibility (ASD) of wheat starch decreased significantly as the inclusion level was increased from 15% to 60%, although there was no significant effect on ACPD values. At a 30% inclusion level, the ASD of diets containing different starches decreased in the order corn > wheat > potato = rice. Moreover, ACPD values were significantly higher for diets containing corn or rice starch than for those containing wheat or potato starch. The capacity of another species of mud crab commonly exploited for aquaculture in South East Asia, S. paramamosain, to digest the local plant-based ingredients (defatted soybean meal, rice bran, cassava and corn flour) was also conducted in Vietnam. Overall, the findings of this study showed that at a 30% inclusion level diets containing soybean meal or rice bran were well digested by mud crabs. In particular, the ACPD and AGED values for all diets containing soybean meal were not significantly different from the fishmeal based reference diet. Likewise, all digestibility values for the diet containing 30% rice bran were relatively high and not significantly different from the reference diet. By contrast, diets containing cassava flour appeared to be poorly utilised since their digestibility values for all parameters were lower than those from other testingredients. In summary, the apparent digestibility of dry matter, protein and energy was in the following order (from most to least digestible) soybean meal ~ rice bran > corn flour > cassava flour. In the next study the effects of attractants in diets (chicken meal, betaine, tuna oil and bait enhancer), temperature (26.5oC, 28.5oC and 30.5oC), sex (female and male) and size (small, medium and large) on feeding responses of S. serrata were investigated. Significant differences were observed in the behavioral responses of mud crabs to diets containing different attractants. Specifically, consumption of diets with chicken meal or betaine was significantly higher than for other treatments. With the exception of betaine, no significant difference in food consumption was observed when attractant inclusion levels were raised from 2% to 5%. Overall, small crabs consumed significantly more of the ration (as a percentage of body weight) than larger crabs. Temperature showed a significant impact on most behaviour of mud crabs, excepting continuation response and there was some evidence that females were significantly more active than males. Light intensity was considered as a main factor effect to crab response since there were extremely high percentage time of crab spent in half-shaded of the Y –maze which valued at 95.6%, 93.8 and 94.4% (corresponded to small, medium and large size respectively) in comparison to those of crabs spent in the unshaded side. Overall, the findings from these studies demonstrated that mud crabs have a high capacity to digest a range of plant based feed ingredients. In particular, soybean meal appeared to be well digested by both species of mud crabs examined. It was also shown that a range of purified starches were well digested by S. serrata although starch inclusion in diets did not appear to reduce the requirement for protein to promote growth. Subsequent attractant studies demonstrated that chicken meal and betaine produced significantly elevated feeding responses and food consumption when added to diets. Based on these results we propose that these ingredients can be utilised to increase the attractiveness and consumption of artificial mud crab feeds.

Hemocyanin, a copper containing protein, is the respiratory protein of Crustacea. Here, 4 major hemocyanin molecules in the hemolymph of Scylla olivacea were purified and studied. Both two-hexamer (24S) and hexamer (16S) form of hemocyanin are present in all adult¡¦s hemolymph. In vitro, 24S hemocyanin dissociates into two 16S hemocyanin in the absence of calcium under high pH value (> 8.9). Little of 16S hemocyanin assembles spontaneously into 24S hemocyanin after calcium is added. Both 16S and 24S hemocyanins were purified from hemolymph, the 16S hemocyanin differs from the 24S hemocyanin in the presence of intersubunit disulfide bonds, it is inferred that not all native 16S hemocyanin dissociates from 24S hemocyanin. Besides the 24S and 16S hemocyanin, there are two massive proteins in the hemolymph of ovary-maturing female S. olivacea. One is female-specific hemocyanin (FSH), which occurs in the hemolymph of ovary-maturing females, but not in the hemolymph of juveniles of either sex or in adult males. FSH is confirmed as a hemocyanin due to its copper content and oxygen binding ability. FSH is also found in ovary, embryo and early-stage zoea, and is proposed to be an important hemocyanin that supplies enough oxygen for ovary-maturing female crab, egg, embryo and early-stage zoea. Another massive hemolymph protein is a non-respiratory protein (NRP) that is present in hemolymph of adults of both sex, the molecular mass of its subunits is similar to hemocyanin and FSH, and one of subunits can be slightly recognized by anti-FSH antibody. NRP is not a respiratory protein, there is neither copper containing nor absorbance of 340nm. FSH and NRP, especially NRP, contain more carbohydrates than the 16S hemocyanin.

En Nouvelle-Calédonie il y a une forte volonté politique pour diversifier l'aquaculture qui repose encore aujourd'hui sur la crevetticulture. Dans ce contexte le crabe de palétuvier est considéré comme une espèce à fort potentiel. Un des principaux verrous au développement de la carcinoculture en Nouvelle-Calédonie est la disponibilité d'un aliment granulé commercial. Ainsi le principal objectif de cette thèse est d'améliorer notre connaissance des besoins nutritionnels du crabe de palétuvier afin d'être en mesure de formuler un aliment équilibré pour son élevage. Cependant avant d'aborder les études nutritionnelles nous avons vérifié le nombre d'espèces de crabes de palétuvier présentes en Nouvelle-Calédonie.Nos résultats d'études morphologiques et génétiques de 63 individus provenant de 9 sites des côtes Ouest et Nord-Est de la Nouvelle-Calédonie ont confirmé l'existence d'une unique espèce commercialisée: Scylla serrata. C'est donc sur cette espèce que nous avons travaillé en nutrition avec deux séries expérimentales ayant pour objectifs: i) d'évaluer le concentré protéique de soja (CPS) en comparaison avec la farine de poisson comme principale source en protéines et ii) de déterminer le taux optimum d'incorporation du CPS pour la mue et la croissance tissulaire des animaux. Nous avons ainsi observé deux phases de croissance tissulaire au cours d'un cycle de mue (CM): une phase rapide (CTR) qui démarre après la mue et dure jusqu'au début de l'intermue (elle représente 30% du CM) suivi d'une phase de croissance lente (CTL) sur toute la durée de l'intermue et jusqu'à la mue suivante (elle représente 70% du CM). L'accumulation des protéines et des lipides au cours du CM a suivi le même profil de croissance tissulaire contrairement aux cendres qui ont augmenté de façon rapide durant 5 jours suivant l'ecdysis pour atteindre un plateau jusqu'à la prochaine mue. Les deux phases de croissance étaient corrélées avec une prise de l'aliment par les animaux maximale pendant les deux premières semaines suivant la mue. Elle a diminué de moitié sur les 5 semaines suivantes et s'est maintenue ensuite à un niveau de base jusqu'à la prochaine mue. L'énergie ingérée était allouée principalement à la croissance et à l'entretient respectivement durant les périodes CTR et CTL. Durant la phase de croissance lente, 28% de l'énergie ingérée étaient mise en réserve en prévision de la prochaine mue. Le remplacement de la farine de poisson par la CPS n'a pas modifié la croissance tissulaire,l'efficience de l'aliment et le bilan énergétique des animaux quelque soit la phase de croissance considérée. Le taux d'incorporation dans l'aliment de 42% de CPS a permis la meilleure croissance (fréquence de mue et croissance tissulaire, efficience de l'aliment et la rétention de l'énergie des protéines et des lipides. L'hypothèse d'une toxicité de l'ammonium issu de la dégradation des protéines en excès ou des facteurs antinutritionnels du soja est avancée pour expliquer les effets négatifs observés avec les aliments renfermant des taux d'incorporation élevés en CPS. En conclusion, nos travaux apportent des informations originales sur la croissance tissulaire et les dépenses énergétiques durant un cycle de mue et la capacité du crabe juvénile d'utiliser le CPS comme principale source de protéines. Sur ces bases nous somme en mesure de préconiser des contraintes nutritionnelles permettant de formuler un aliment équilibré sans farine de poissons pour l'élevage du crabe de palétuvier S.serrata. / In New Caledonia, there is the strong political will to diversify aquaculture which is mainly based on shrimp farming. In this context, mud crabs have been considered as a potential species for aquaculture development. One of the main constraints to develop crab farming is the availability of formulated feed. Thus, the main purpose of this thesis is to get information on the crab nutritional requirements in order to formulate a balanced diet. However, we had to clarify first how many species of mud crab were present in New-Caledonia. The result of our morphological and genetic investigations carried out on 63 specimens from 9 areas of the west and northeast coast of New-Caledonia confirmed that only one species, Scylla serrata, is commercialized in this country. Consequently, S. serrata was used in our nutritional study based on two experiments to: i) evaluate the soy protein concentrate (SPC) compared with the fishmeal as the main protein source and ii) determine the optimum level of SPC in the diet for molting and tissue growth. We observed two tissue growth phases within one molt cycle (MC): a fast tissue growth (FTG) occurred after ecdysis until early intermolt stage (30% of MC) which is followed by a slow tissue growth (STG) period from intermolt to ecdysis (70% of MC). Protein and lipid deposition followed the same trend than tissue growth while ash level increased quickly during five days after molt and then remained stable until the next molt. The two growth phases were correlated with the voluntary feed intakes (VFI) which was maximum during 2 weeks after ecdysis and then decreased by 50% over the five following weeks to reach a baseline until the next molt. Intake energy was allocated mainly for growth during FTG period and for maintenance during STG period. During STG, 28% of the ingested energy was accumulated for the next ecdysis. Replacement of fishmeal by SPC as main protein source did not affect tissue growth, efficiency of feed utilization and energy budget of crabs whatever the tissue growth period considered. The dietary SPC inclusion of 42% in the diet promoted growth (molt frequency and tissue growth), feed efficiency and retention of energy, protein and lipid. Hypothesis related to ammonia toxicity from catabolism of proteins in excess or anti-nutritional factors from soybean could explain the negative effects of higher inclusion of SPC in the diet for juvenile crabs. In conclusion, our work brings novel information on tissue growth, energy budget during a molt cycle and the ability of juvenile crab to use SPC as a main source of protein. On this basis we suggest to formulate nutritionally balanced diet without fishmeal to farm juvenile mud crabs S. serrata.

It is often hypothesised that marine species with mobile planktonic phases are capable of widespread dispersal and may therefore be genetically homogenous throughout their distribution. Studies that have demonstrated positive correlation between duration of plankton phase and levels of gene flow reinforce the prediction that life history characteristics of marine species determine the potential extent of genetic and demographic connectivity throughout their distributions. This prediction has however been challenged by studies that have employed genetic markers highly sensitive to both historical and contemporary demographic changes. Disparities between dispersal potential and measured levels of gene flow have been demonstrated both among historically disconnected ocean basins and within semi-enclosed areas of strong hydraulic connectivity. These studies and others highlight a need for greater focus on factors that may influence population structure and distribution for marine species. In this thesis, I have examined genetic structure within and among populations of an estuarine species of mud crab Scylla serrata (Forskal, 1775) using a number of genetic markers and methods. The species is widely distributed throughout mangrove and estuarine habitats of the Indo - West Pacific (IWP); it is generally assumed that life-history characteristics of S. serrata promote high levels of population admixture and gene flow throughout its distribution. Alternatively, factors that have promoted population genetic structure for a variety of IWP marine species may also have affected S. serrata populations. By investigating genetic structure at several spatial scales of sampling, I was able to address a variety of hypotheses concerning the species distribution, dispersal, and genetic structure. Episodic changes to marine habitat and conditions experienced within the IWP during the Pleistocene may have affected genetic structure for a broad variety of marine taxa. The relative strength of this hypothesis may be assayed by comparative genetic studies of widespread IWP taxa with high dispersal capacity. In order to ascertain levels of historical and contemporary gene flow for S. serrata, I investigated the phylogeographic distribution of mitochondrial DNA haplotypes sampled throughout the species range. Adults were sampled from three west Indian ocean locations (N=21), six west Pacific sites (N=68), and two sites from northern eastern Australia (N=35). Temperature gradient gel electrophoresis and sequencing of 549 base pairs of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI) coding gene identified 18 distinct haplotypes. Apart from that seen in northern Australia, haplotype diversity was low (h < 0.36) at each of the locations. Total nucleotide diversity in the entire sample (excluding northern Australian locations) was also low (p = 0.09). Haplotypes clustered into two clades separated by approximately 2% sequence divergence. One clade was widespread throughout the IWP (clade 1) whereas the other was strictly confined to northern Australia (clade 2). Genealogical assessment of sequenced haplotypes relative to their distributions suggested that a historical radiation of clade 1 S. serrata throughout the IWP occurred rapidly and recently (<1Myr bp) from a west Pacific origin. The evidence of fixed unique haplotypes at the majority of locations suggested that contemporary maternal gene flow between trans-oceanic sites was limited. Contrary to reports for other widespread species of IWP taxa, there was no evidence of lengthy periods of regional separation between Indian from Pacific Ocean populations. However, results may indicate a separation of northern Australian crabs from other locations before and during the IWP radiation. I speculated that this isolation might have resulted in the formation of a new species of Scylla. Additional sampling of mud crabs from the Australian coastline allowed an examination of the diversity and distribution of clade 1 and 2 haplotypes among recently formed shelf-connected coastal locations, and across a historical bio-geographic barrier. Over 300 individuals were sampled from multiple locations within coastal regions (western, northern and eastern) of Australia and analysed for mutational differences at the COI gene. Analysis of molecular variance partitioned by sampling scale (Among regions, within regions, and within all locations) indicated mitochondrial haplotypes were structured regionally (P < 0.001), which contrasted with evidence of genetic panmixia within regions. Regional genetic structure broadly correlated with hydrological circulation, supporting the contention that release and transport of propagules away from the estuary may allow genetic connectivity among widespread shelf-connected S. serrata populations. That similar patterns of maternal gene flow were absent among trans-oceanic populations may indicate that the spatial scale of effective dispersal for this species is generally limited to areas of coastal shelf. The two clades of haplotypes were geographically separated either side of the Torres Strait, a narrow sea channel connecting the northern and eastern regions of coastal Australia. This pattern of historical genetic separation was concordant with a number of other marine species across northern Australia, and might indicate a shared history of vicariance induced by eustasy. Alternatively, differences in diversity and distribution of the clades may be evidence of two independent expansions of clade 1 and 2 crab populations into Australian regions following post-glacial estuary formation. Overall, despite evidence of genetic panmixia within extensive sections of the Australian distribution, there was also evidence of significant barriers to maternal gene flow with both shallow and deep regional phylogeographic assortment of mtDNA haplotypes. The presence of these barriers indicated both historical and contemporary factors have imposed limits to effective dispersal by this species among coastal habitats. A subset of the Australian sample (8 locations, N = 188) was also examined for variation at five microsatellite loci developed specifically here for S. serrata. I examined variation among samples at each of the loci to: a) independently verify regional structure among crab populations previously detected using the mtDNA analysis; b) test for evidence of co-distributed non-interbreeding stocks of S. serrata within Australian waters by examining samples for segregation of alleles within microsatellite loci concordant with the two mtDNA clades. The frequency and distribution of alleles for each of the highly polymorphic microsatellites were homogenous at all levels of sample partitioning and contrasted sharply with the instances of both weak and strong regional phylogeographic assortment of mtDNA haplotypes. These contrasting results between different genomic markers were examined in relation to the species life history, and to differences in mutational rate and inheritance of the genetic markers. Several hypotheses may explain the disparity, however it is most likely that rampant homoplasy and high rates of mutation at the microsatellite in conjunction with large Ne at locations may be concerted to delay equilibrium between genetic drift and migration among populations at these highly polymorphic nuclear markers. There was also no evidence that alleles at microsatellite loci were co-segregated with mtDNA clades and therefore no evidence of segregated breeding between the clades of crabs. Whether or not this result was also driven by homoplasy at the microsatellites remains unknown. Recently established mud crab populations (~ 3-4 years old) observed in a number of southwest Australian estuaries are almost 1000 kilometres south of their previously recorded distribution on the Western Australian coast. Colonisation of the southwest region may have occurred either by a natural range expansion from northwest Australian mud crab populations or by means of translocation from any number of mud crab sources within the Indo - West Pacific. I used mtDNA analysis to verify the species and determine the potential source population(s) of the colonists, by comparing sampled genetic material from the southwest (N = 32) against that previously described for the genus. I also compared levels of diversity at mtDNA and two microsatellite loci between the colonist and suspected source population(s) to qualitatively determine if the southwest populations experienced reductions in genetic diversity as a result of the colonisation process. All colonist samples had S. serrata mtDNA COI sequences identical to one previously described as both prevalent and endemic to northwest Australia. High levels of genetic diversity among source and colonist populations at two microsatellite loci contrasted to the mitochondrial locus which displayed an absence of variation among colonists compared to moderately diverse source populations. I argued that the southwest was recently colonised by large numbers of S. serrata propagules derived from the northwest of Australia, possibly due to an enhanced recruitment event coinciding with the reported strengthening of the Leeuwin Current during 1999. Contrasting levels of diversity among nuclear and mitochondrial loci may be attributed to a difference in response by the two genomes to the colonisation process. I predict that such differences may be generally prevalent among plankton-dispersed species. Finally, I discuss aspects of the species distribution and biogeography obtained as a composite of the various results and ideas expressed in this thesis. I propose that S. serrata populations in the IWP may have experienced several cycles of extinction and population retraction from temperate areas followed by subsequent periods of colonisation and rapid coastal expansion in response to the effects of glacial episodes on coastal habitats in the IWP. I propose that persistence of this species as remnant populations of clade 1 and 2 crabs at equatorial locations during low sea level stands provided source populations for later expansions by the species into a variety of coastal areas throughout the IWP. Further analysis is required to determine if mtDNA clade 1 and 2 crabs are non-interbreeding species of mud crab.

Commercial farming of mud crab Scylla serrata is a significant industry throughout South East Asia. The limited scientific knowledge of mud crab nutritional requirements and digestive processes, however, is recognised as a major constraint to the future growth of this industry. To better understand the mechanisms of digestion in the mud crab we have analysed the diversity of digestive enzymes from the hepatopancreas. Significant protease, amylase,cellulase and xylanase activities were detected in soluble extracts from this organ. Temperature profiles for all enzymes were basically similar with optimal activities observed at 500C. Examination of pH tolerance revealed optimal activities for protease and amylase at pH 7.0 while optimal activities for cellulase and xylanase were observed at pH 5.5. Under optimum conditions,protease and amylase activities were approximately two orders of magnitude greater than those seen for either cellulase or xylanase. Interestingly, hepatopancreatic extracts were able to liberate glucose from either starch or carboxymethyl (CM)-cellulose suggesting that a range of carbohydrates may be utilised as energy sources. The effects of dietary carbohydrates on feed digestibility, digestive enzyme levels and growth were also studied by inclusion of additional starch or CM-cellulose at the expense of casein in formulated diets. It was shown that amylase, cellulase and xylanase activities in extracts from the hepatopancreas were highest in mud crabs fed diets containing 47% carbohydrate. Based on the findings, we suggest that the ability of the mud crab to modulate digestive enzyme activities may represent a mechanism to maximise access to essential nutrients when the dietary profile changes.

The purpose of this study is to locate spatial manifestations of power, and acts of agency, by conducting a subversive reading of the female immortal threats in Homer’s Odyssey. With an aim to question preconceived notions on sexuality, gender and power, I draw on the theoretical perspectives of gender theorists J. Butler and J. Halberstam in my reading of non-normative female displays of power. The material in question is the adventures in the Odyssey that present female immortals, functioning as antagonists in the epos’ narrative structure. Space and power make the foundation in the deconstruction of these adventures. I approach the subject using analytical tools from the spatial methodology of K. Knott. Starting with ‘location’ I apply analytical categories such as ‘physical space’, ‘social space’, ‘properties of space’ and ‘spatial aspects’ in order to critically analyze spatial manifestations of power in each adventure. By placing the female immortal in the subject position, this work shows how she utilizes her space in order to dominate the mortal man she encounters. This is conducted through non-normative acts such as isolation and restriction. The study highlights the problem of putting ‘sex’ as the only, or dominant, focus in the reading of these adventures. The female immortals that Odysseus encounters, can by spatial analysis be shown to act autonomously towards mortal intruders that enter their territory.  They present themselves as having the right to take a mortal man for a husband, as well as kill him or keep him as a prisoner. This suggests that their status as immortal exceeds Odysseus’ male gender, whilst still being restricted by the gender hierarchy of her immortal society. The spatial analysis show that the female immortal possesses the agency of the mortal female as well as of the mortal male within in their oikos. The female immortal displays power by sustaining her space, as well as by regulating the movements of the mortal man, in and out of, and sometimes beyond, her space.