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published_or_final_version / Biological Sciences / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Hong Kong, 2010. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 142-175). Also available in print.

Secretin and VIP stimulate cardiac adenylyl cyclase activity and exert a positive inotropic action in several mammalian species. This study examined positive inotropic activity and cAMP levels in rat papillary muscle. Isoproterenol and secretin increased contractions by 150 ± 31% and 129 ± 27%, respectively. VIP increased contraction by 30 ± 21% only at 10 μM. Isoproterenol significantly increased cAMP levels by 82%, whereas increases by secretin (58%) and VIP (56%) were not significant. These results are consistent with reports that secretin and VIP stimulate cardiac adenylyl cyclase in the rat, but suggest that cAMP tissue levels cannot totally explain the positive inotropic responses to secretin and VIP.

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Les protéines synthétisées et sécrétées par les bactéries jouent des rôles importants pour leur survie. Les bactéries à Gram négatif ont développé des voies de sécrétion en tant qu'armes principales pour transporter des facteurs de virulence dans l'environnement extracellulaire ou dans des cellules hôte. L'un de ces systèmes, le T9SS a été principalement étudié chez l'agent pathogène oral Porphyromonas gingivalis et chez la bactérie mobile Flavobacterium johnsoniae. Un autre complexe, le T2SS est le principal déterminant de la virulence de la bactérie Pseudomonas aeruginosa, un agent pathogène de la fibrose kystique. Dans le cadre de ma thèse, j'ai résolu la structure atomique de plusieurs composants centraux du T9SS et du T2SS. Concernant le projet T9SS, j'ai essayé de cristalliser le domaine cytoplasmique de GldL de F. johnsoniae. La co-cristallisation de GldL avec des Nbs a été réalisée sans succès. Néanmoins, les structures cristallines de deux nanobody contre GldL ont été résolues par remplacement moléculaire. De plus, j'ai également travaillé sur la protéine PG1058 de P. gingivalis. J'ai résolu sa structure par diffraction anomale à la longueur d’onde du selenium. Concernant le projet T2SS, je me suis concentré sur la partie N-terminale de XcpQ, une sous-unité de la sécrétine. J'ai résolu la structure cristalline de XcpQN012 seul et en complexe avec le nanobody vhh04 à une résolution de 2,98 Å et de 2,9 Å, respectivement. Enfin, j'ai participé à la détermination structurale de TssK, un composant de plaque de base du système de T6SS et déterminer la structure cristalline d'un nanobody contre le domaine périplasmique de PorM. / Proteins synthesized and secreted by bacteria serve many important roles in their survival. In particular, Gram-negative bacteria have evolved secretion pathways as the main weapons for transporting virulence factors into target cells or into the extracellular environment. One of these systems, the type IX secretion system (T9SS) or the Por secretion system, has been studied mainly in the oral pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis and the gliding bacterium Flavobacterium johnsoniae. Another complex, the type II secretion system (T2SS) is the main determinant of the virulence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a cystic fibrosis pathogen. In my PhD thesis, I solved the atomic structure of several core components of both T9SS and T2SS.For the T9SS project, I tried to crystallize the cytoplasmic domain of GldL from F. johnsoniae. The co-crystallization of GldL with Nbs was unsuccessfull. The crystal structures of two nanobodies against GldL were solved by molecular replacement. I also worked on the PG1058 protein of P. gingivalis. I obtained crystals of the selenomethionine-derivatized PG1058 OmpA_C-like domain that diffracted up to 1.55 Å, and solved its structure by single-wavelength anomalous diffraction. For the T2SS project, I focused on the N-terminal part of XcpQ, a subunit of the secretin. I solved the crystal structure of XcpQN012 alone and in complex with nanobody vhh04 at a resolution of 2.98 Å and 2.9 Å, respectively. In addition, I also took part in the structural determination of the base plate component TssK of the T6SS and determined the crystal structure of one nanobody (vhh19) against the periplasmic domain of PorM.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are one of the largest protein families in mammals. GPCRs are instrumental for hormonal and neurotransmitter signalling and are important in all major physiological systems of the body. Paper I describes the repertoire of GPCRs in Branchiostoma floridae, which is one of the species most closely related species to vertebrates. Mining and phylogenetic analysis of the amphioxus genome showed the presence of at least 664 distinct GPCRs distributed among all the main families of GPCRs; Glutamate (18), Rhodopsin (570), Adhesion (37), Frizzled (6) and Secretin (16). Paper II contains studies of the Adhesion, Methuselah and Secretin GPCR families in nine genomes. The Adhesion GPCRs are the most complex gene family among GPCRs with large genomic size, multiple introns and a fascinating flora of functional domains. Phylogenetic analysis showed Adhesion group V (that contains GPR133 and GPR144) to be the closest relative to the Secretin family among the groups in the Adhesion family, which was also supported by splice site setup and conserved motifs. Paper III examines the repertoire of human transmembrane proteins. These form key nodes in mediating the cell’s interaction with the surroundings, which is one of the main reasons why the majority of drug targets are membrane proteins. We identified 6,718 human membrane proteins and classified the majority of them into 234 families of which 151 belong to the three major functional groups; Receptors (63 groups, 1,352 members), Transporters (89 groups, 817 members) or Enzymes (7 groups, 533 members). In addition, 74 Miscellaneous groups were shown to include 697 members. Paper IV clarifies the hierarchy of the main families and evolutionary origin of majority of the metazoan GPCR families. Overall, it suggests common decent of at least 97% of the GPCRs sequences found in humans, including all the main families.

La souche de P. aeruginosa PA14 est un isolat humain hautement virulent. PA14 possède deux îlots de pathogénicité. L'îlot de pathogénicité PAPI-1 de 108 kb est un élément intégratif et conjugatif (ICE), capable de s'auto-transférer à des souches de Pseudomonas par un mécanisme de conjugaison. Le mécanisme de transfert fait intervenir un pilus de Type IVb, encodé dans l'îlot PAPI-1. Mon travail de doctorat a eu pour but de caractériser à un niveau moléculaire le pilus de Type IVb (Pil-PAPI-1). J'ai d'abord, inséré un promoteur constitutif en place du promoteur endogène pour activer l'expression du locus pil2. J'ai démontré que 9 des 10 gènes sont requis pour le transfert d'ADN. J'ai ensuite initié la caractérisation de composants formant la machine de conjugaison. J'ai caractérisé le produit des gènes pilL2 et pilN2. J'ai démontré que PilL2 est une protéine de membrane externe (ME) et exposée dans le périplasme. Cette protéine est essentielle pour la fonctionnalité (transfert d'ADN) de la machinerie de conjugaison. Malgré ses caractéristiques prédites de lipoprotéine, aucune des mutations réalisées n'a pu modifier la localisation de ME de PilL2. J'ai aussi démontré que PilL2 forme un sous complexe de ME avec PilN2, la sécrétine du système. PilN2 forme des multimères stable, et présente les caractéristiques d'une liposécretine, capable d'auto-insertion et d'auto-multimérisation dans la ME. J'ai démontré que le N-ter de PilN2 mature est critique pour la formation d'un pore fonctionnel, mais n'est pas impliqué dans l'interaction avec PilL2. Ces résultats suggèrent que PilL2 et PilN2 forment un nouveau type de sous complexe de ME dans la famille des TFPb. / The P. aeruginosa PA14 strain is a highly virulent human isolate. PA14 possesses two pathogenicity islands. The 108-kb pathogenicity island PAPI-1 is an integrative and conjugative element (ICE), capable of self-transferring to any recipient Pseudomonas strain, by a conjugative mechanism. The transfer mechanism is mediated by a Type IVb pilus, encoded within the PAPI-1 Island. My PhD work aimed to characterize this Type IVb pilus (Pil-PAPI-1) at a molecular level. The pil2 locus is poorly expressed under laboratory condition. I, first, introduced a constitutive promoter to turn on expression of the pil2 locus. I demonstrated that 9 of the 10 genes are required for DNA transfer. Then, I initiated the characterization of components forming the conjugation machinery. I characterized the products of pilL2 and pilN2 genes. I demonstrated that PilL2 is an OM protein and protruding in the periplasm. This protein is essential for the functionality (DNA transfer) of the conjugative TFPb machinery. Despite its predicted lipoprotein-hallmarks, none of the mutations engineered were able to abrogate the OM-localization of PilL2. We also demonstrated that PilL2 forms an OM sub-complex with PilN2, the secretin of the system. We provide evidence that PilN2 forms stable multimers, which presents the features of a liposecretin, capable of self-insertion and self-multimerization in the OM. We demonstrated that while the N-terminus of the mature PilN2 is required for the formation of a functional pore, it is not involved in interaction with PilL2. These results suggest that PilL2 and PilN2 could form new type of OM sub-complex in the TFPb family.

Le système de sécrétion de type II (T2SS) est largement exploité par les bactéries à Gram négatif pour sécréter divers facteurs de virulence depuis le périplasme vers le milieu extra-cellulaire. La bactérie phytopathogène Dickeya dadanti (ex. Erwinia chrysanthemi) utilise ce système, appelé Out, pour la sécrétion de pectinases responsable de la maladie de la pourriture molle chez de nombreuses plantes. Les deux composants essentiels du système Out, la protéine de membrane interne OutC et la sécrétine OutD, formant un pore dans la membrane externe, sont impliqués dans la spécificité de sécrétion. L'interaction entre OutC et OutD pourrait assurer l’intégrité structurelle et fonctionnelle du système de sécrétion en reliant les deux membranes. Nous avons entrepris une étude structure-fonction de ces deux composants afin d’identifier et caractériser leurs sites d’interaction et de mieux comprendre leurs rôles. Nous avons appliqué une approche intégrative impliquant une analyse in vivo par cystéine-scanning et pontage disulfure, une analyse in vitro par GST pull down et une analyse structurale d’OutC et OutD et de leurs interactions par RMN. Nos résultats indiquent la présence d'au moins trois sites d'interaction entre les régions périplasmiques d’OutC et d’OutD et suggèrent que ces interactions s’établissent par un mécanisme d’addition des brins β. Nous avons démontré qu’un site situé sur le domaine HR d’OutC pouvait interagir avec deux sites distincts d’OutD suggérant un mode d’interaction alternatif. La présence d’exoprotéines et/ou des composants de membrane interne du système OutE-L-M, modifie différemment l’affinité de ces trois sites d'interaction entre OutC et OutD. Nous proposons que ces interactions alternatives entre divers sites d’OutC et OutD pourraient refléter une succession d’étapes fonctionnelles lors du processus de sécrétion. Pour étudier le mécanisme d’adressage et d’assemblage de la sécrétine OutD dans la membrane externe, nous avons exploité les interactions entre OutD et deux composants auxiliaires du T2SS, la protéine de la membrane interne OutB et la lipoprotéine de la membrane externe OutS. Nous avons montré une interaction directe entre le domaine périplasmique d’OutB et le domaine N0 d’OutD. Une analyse structure-fonction du complexe OutS-OutD a révélé que la pilotine OutS interagit fortement avec 18 résidus à l’extrémité C-terminale de la sécrétine, entraînant la structuration sous forme hélicoïdale de cette région initialement non structurée. Ce travail nous permet de mieux comprendre le mécanisme d’assemblage et de fonctionnement du système de sécrétion de type II. / The type II secretion system (T2SS) is widely exploited by Gram-negative bacteria to secrete diverse virulence factors from the periplasm into the extra-cellular milieu. The phytopathogenic bacterium Dickeya dadanti (ex. Erwinia chrysanthemi) uses this system, named Out, to secrete several cell-wall degrading enzymes that cause soft-rot disease of many plants. The two core components of the Out system, the inner membrane protein OutC and the secretin OutD, which forms a secretion pore in the outer membrane, are involved in secretion specificity. The interaction between OutC and OutD could assure the structural and functional integrity of the secretion system by connecting the two membranes. To understand structure-function relationships between these two components and characterize their interaction sites, we applied an integrative approach involving in vivo cysteine scanning and disulfide cross-linking analysis, truncation analysis of OutC and OutD combined with in vitro GST pull-down, and structural analysis of these proteins and of their interactions by NMR. Our results indicate the presence of at least three interacting sites between the periplasmic regions of OutC and OutD and suggest a β-strand addition mechanism for these interactions. We demonstrated that one site of the HR domain of OutC can interact with two distinct sites of OutD suggesting an alternative mode of their interactions. The presence of exoproteins or/and the inner membrane components of the system OutE-L-M differently alters the affinity of the three OutC-OutD interacting sites. We suggest that successive interactions between these distinct regions of OutC and OutD may have functional importance in switching the secretion machinery between different functional states. To study the mechanism of the targeting and assembly of the secretin OutD into the outer membrane, we exploited the interactions between OutD and two auxiliary proteins, i.e., the inner membrane protein OutB and the outer membrane lipoprotein OutS. We showed a direct interaction between the periplasmic domain of OutB and the N0 domain of OutD. Structure-function analysis of OutS-OutD complex shows that the pilotin OutS binds tightly to 18 residues close to the C-terminus of the secretin subunit causing this unstructured region to become helical on forming the complex. This work allows us to better understand the assembly and function mechanism of the type II secretion system.

Type IV pili (T4P) are bacterial biomolecular machines that mediate interactions with the environment. Bacterial pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa require T4P for virulence. Significant progress has been made in recent years towards our understanding of how the proteins in the T4P system interact and function. While over 50 different proteins are involved in T4P biogenesis, the two outer membrane components, PilF and PilQ, are the focus of the work presented in this thesis. PilF was found to be required for assembly of PilQ into secretins, the outer membrane channels through which T4P fibers exit the cell. The functions of PilF are consistent with a family of lipoproteins called pilotins, to which the roles of secretin assembly and/or localization are attributed. Structure determination by X-ray crystallography revealed that PilF is composed of six tetratricopeptide (TPR) protein-protein interaction motifs. Functional mapping of PilF indicated that a hydrophobic groove on the first TPR is involved in secretin assembly. Secretin localization correlated directly with that of PilF. The effects of pilF mutations and the structural data led to the hypothesis that PilF and PilQ interact directly. We propose that PilF and PilQ interact at the inner membrane and are co-transported to the outer membrane by the Lol lipoprotein sorting system. PilQ multimerizes into secretins upon outer membrane insertion and aligns with inner membrane T4P proteins to form a complete molecular machine. PilQ mutagenesis mapping showed that: the N-terminal “system specific” domain is important but not essential for secretin function; the central “multimerization” domain is critical for secretin assembly and function; and the C-terminal tail implicated in secretin-pilotin interactions is dispensable for PilQ function. Purified PilQ enabled copurification of PilF from cell lysates, providing the first evidence for their interaction. These data provide a framework for future exploration of T4P assembly in P. aeruginosa.