A major challenge in the post-genomic era is to understand how genome sequence variants (genotype) give rise to the enormous diversity observed in terms of morphology, physiology and behavior (phenotype) among living organisms. Domestic animals—with their tremendous phenotypic variation—are excellent model organisms for determining the relationships between genotype and phenotype. In this thesis, I describe the utilization of the chicken, in combination with modern genetic and genomic approaches, in developing our understanding of the genetic mechanisms underlying phenotypic variation. These studies provide novel information on the genetics behind variation in carotenoid- and melanin-based pigmentation—observed in many organisms—and also cast light on the genetic basis of chicken domestication. In paper I, we report that the yellow skin phenotype—observed in most commercial chickens—is caused by one or several tissue-specific mutations altering the expression of beta-carotene oxygenase 2 (BCO2 or BCDO2) in skin. In addition, we present the first conclusive evidence of a hybrid origin of the domestic chicken, since the allele causing yellow skin most likely originates from the grey jungle fowl (Gallus sonneratii) and not from the previously described sole ancestor, the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus). In paper II, we detect a number of loci that were likely important during the domestication process of chicken and the later specialization into meat (broiler) and egg (layer) producing lines. One of the major findings was that worldwide, almost all domestic chickens carry a missense mutation in TSHR (thyroid stimulating hormone receptor) in a position that is completely conserved amongst vertebrates. We speculate that this “domestication-mutation” has played an important role in the transformation of the wild red jungle fowl ancestor into the modern domestic chicken. In paper III, we demonstrate that the dilution of red (pheomelanin) pigmentation—observed in the plumage of the Inhibitor of Gold chicken—is caused by a frame-shift mutation in the catechol-O-methyltransferase domain containing 1 (COMTD1) gene. The production and regulation of pheomelanin is poorly understood and this discovery advances our current knowledge of this pathway.

Les bactéries symbiotiques facultatives, transmises verticalement de mère à descendants, sont connues pour avoir des effets importants sur la reproduction de leurs hôtes (incompatibilité cytoplasmique et biais de sex-ratio), sur l’adaptation à des situations de stress (spécialisation, résistance aux pathogènes et aux fortes températures) ainsi que sur l’évolution de l’ADN mitochondrial par l’induction de balayages sélectifs. Bemisia tabaci est un complexe d’espèces divisé en nombreux biotypes, principalement différenciés sur la base de marqueurs moléculaires (essentiellement mitochondrial). Cet insecte héberge 7 symbiotes, 1 symbiote nutritionnel obligatoire et 6 symbiotes facultatifs. Nos résultats ont montré une extrême diversité ainsi qu’une prévalence exceptionnelle des bactéries symbiotiques chez B. tabaci. Leur dynamique rapide a entraîné de nombreux balayages sélectifs sur l’ADN mitochondrial influençant nettement son évolution. La très forte fréquence des infections multiples chez cet insecte peut certainement être expliquée par la co-localisation de l’ensemble des bactéries au sein des mêmes cellules, avec le symbiote nutritionnelle. Enfin, la coexistence de différents cytotypes en sympatrie offre l’opportunité d’étudier les interactions qui se mettent en place entre différentes communautés symbiotiques et comment ces systèmes vont évoluer / Facultative endosymbiotic bacteria that are vertically transmitted from mother to offsprings, have important effects on their host reproduction (cytoplasmic incompatibilities and sex-ratio biais), on host adaptation to situation of stress (specialization, resistance against pathogens or high temperature) and also on the evolution of mtDNA, by inducing selective sweeps. Bemisia tabaci is a species complex divided into numerous, mainly differentiated based on molecular markers (essentially mtDNA markers). This insect is infected by 7 bacterial symbionts, one nutritionnal symbiont that is obligatory and 6 facultative symbionts. Our results show an extreme diversity of symbionts in this insect and a very high prevalence in B. tabaci populations. Moreover their rapid dynamic has strongly influenced mtDNA evolution by inducing recurrent selective sweeps. The colocalization of the whole symbiotic community in the same cells, with the nutritional symbiont, might certainly explain the very high frequency of multiple infections in B. tabaci. Finally, coexistence of very different cytotypes in sympatry allows to study the interactions that take place between different symbiotic communities and how these systems will evolve

A cana-de-açúcar (Saccharum ssp.) é uma cultura valiosa na produção de alimento, fibra e energia para o Brasil e, especialmente, para o estado de São Paulo. Com o advento da biotecnologia, alternativas de melhoramento genético têm despertado a atenção da comunidade científica, sendo etapas cruciais para tais avanços o sequenciamento e a caracterização do genoma das espécies cultivadas. Dada sua natureza poliploide, com frequente aneuploidia, a cana-de-açúcar apresenta dificuldades às práticas convencionais em genômica, de maneira que é vantajoso fazer uso de recursos de sequenciamento de nova geração e de espécies próximas para elucidar de forma mais efetiva o genoma da gramínea. Uma contribuição interessante, nesse sentido, é a caracterização funcional de polimorfismos genéticos existentes entre genótipos do gênero Saccharum, auxiliando investigações relacionadas à genômica de poliploides complexos, desenvolvendo um recurso a ser utilizado futuramente por melhoristas. Esse trabalho realizou a caracterização da variabilidade genômica a partir de dados genotípicos de indivíduos do Painel Brasileiro de Genótipos de Cana-de-Açúcar, obtidos via genotipagem-por-sequenciamento, utilizando como referência o genoma já sequenciado do sorgo. Os sítios variantes (sobretudo polimorfismos de nucleotídeo único) foram detectados com o software FreeBayes e suas possíveis funções e posições foram anotadas com o programa SnpEff. Utilizaram-se estatísticas de genética de populações, como a frequência alélica para várias classes de polimorfimo, o Teste de McDonald & Kreitman (busca de evidêcias de evolução adaptativa) e a heterozigosidade combinada (busca de regiões genômicas com assinatura de seleção), de modo a identificar regiões genômicas potencialmente envolvidas em eventos evolutivos. Os resultados demonstraram a perda de variabilidade entre os genótipos melhorados em relação aos ancestrais, com evidências de assinaturas de seleção, envolvendo questões sensíveis ao funcionamento da maquinaria celular (como respiração e fotossíntese) e a características valoradas para a cultura (destacando-se a resistência a patógenos e a biossíntese da sacarose). Tais indícios fornecem subsídios à compreensão do genoma e ao melhoramento genético desse poliploide. / Sugarcane (Saccharum ssp.) is a valuable crop for food, fiber and energy production in Brazil, especially to the São Paulo State. With the advent of biotechnology, alternatives to breeding have enticed attention of the scientific community, with genome sequencing and characterization being crucial steps to these advances. Because sugarcane is polyploid, with frequent aneuploidy, it presents difficulties to the application of standard practices in genomics, such that it is advantageous to make use of next generation sequencing alternatives and resources from related species to more effectively elucidate the genome of this grass. Thus, an interesting contribution is the functional characterization of genetic polymorphisms from the Saccharum genus, aiding investigations related to genomics of complex polyploids, developing a resource to be used in the future by breeders. Our goal was to perform this characterization with genotypic data from individuals of the Brazilian Panel of Sugarcane Genotypes, obtained by genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS), using as reference the previously sequenced sorghum genome. We called the variants (mainly single nucleotide polymorphisms) with FreeBayes and annotated their functions and positions with SnpEff. We used population genetics statistics, such as the allele frequency, the McDonald & Kreitman Test and the pooled heterozygosity, to identify genomic regions potentially involved in evolutionary events. The results showed a loss of variability between bred genotypes in relation to the ancestors, with evidences of selective sweeps, involving regions related to the cellular machinery (such as respiration and photosynthesis) and specific crop traits (especially disease resistance and sucrose biosynthesis). These results support understanding of the genome and breeding efforts in this polyploid grass.

Les populations humaines ont été confrontées à de nombreux changements environnementaux au cours de leur histoire et présentent aujourd’hui une grande diversité d’habitats et de modes de subsistance. Cependant, l’ampleur de l’adaptation génétique et des réponses épigénétiques à ces changements est débattue. Nous avons d’abord étudié la puissance de diverses statistiques pour détecter les balayages sélectifs dans le contexte des données de séquençage à haut débit, et évalué leur robustesse à différents facteurs confondants. En utilisant des jeux de données de séquençage, nous montrons que les balayages sélectifs ont eu un impact modéré mais non négligeable dans l’évolution récente du génome humain. Les régions sous sélection sont enrichies en mutations associées à des variations phénotypiques. Nous avons ensuite évalué l’impact respectif des facteurs génétiques et environnementaux sur la diversité épigénétique humaine. Pour cela, nous avons obtenu les génotypes et les profiles de méthylation de l’ADN de populations d’Afrique Centrale présentant des différences récentes d’habitat ou historiques de modes de vie et de profil génétique. Nous montrons que les deux facteurs ont un effet similaire sur le méthylome mais diffèrent par les fonctions biologiques affectées et les mécanismes expliquant les variations observées. Plus généralement, les variations de méthylation sont fortement associées à des mutations génétiques qui sont enrichies en signaux de sélection positive. En conclusion, ce travail apporte un aperçu de la contribution des mutations génétiques et des réponses épigénétiques à l’adaptation humaine aux changements environnementaux sur plusieurs échelles de temps. / Human populations have faced a large number of environmental challenges during their evolutionary history and present today a wide range of habitats and mode of subsistence. However, the extent of genetic adaptation and epigenetic responses to such environmental variation remains controversial. We first explored the power of several statistics to detect hard selective sweeps in the context of whole-genome sequencing data, and evaluated their robustness to demography and other selection modes. Using data from the 1,000 Genomes Project and Complete Genomics, we showed that hard sweeps targeting low-frequency standing variation have played a moderate, albeit significant, role in recent human evolution. The signals of selection detected were moreover enriched in functional variants detected by genome-wide association studies. We then evaluated the relative impacts of genetic and environmental factors on human epigenomic diversity. To do so, we generated genome-wide genetic and DNA methylation profiles for Central African populations differing in their current habitat or in their historical lifestyle and genetic background. We found that both factors have similar critical impacts on the shaping of the global methylome, but the biological functions affected and the mechanisms underlying DNA methylation variation strongly differ. More generally, methylation variation shows strong associations with nearby genetic variants that, moreover, are enriched in signals of natural selection. Together, this work provides new insight into the contribution of genetic adaptation and epigenetic responses to the adaptation of humans to environmental changes over different time scales.