The use of renewable energy has proven to be essential for the decarbonisation of the energy system, bringing changes on both the production and consumption side, with an increase of renewable energy in the mix and a change in the role of consumers. From passive actors, Consumers are becoming Prosumers (producers and consumers) of self-generated energy, with the potential of becoming the pillar of the energy sector transition. The European Union set ambitious goals for the realization of a low carbon society by 2050, giving birth to several energy related initiatives. From a regulatory perspective, Europe is indeed paving the way for an internal energy market revolution, that sees the introduction of new actors among which, Local Energy Communities (LEC). In the progressive transition from a centralized to a decentralized system with intelligent and interconnected production sources, consumers are allowed to produce, store, share or resell their energy directly or as energy cooperatives, and can manage demand either independently or through aggregators. In this context Energy Communities take shape. In accordance with the definition given in the European RED directive "Renewable Energy Directive", this study refers to energy communities as a set of energy users who, through cooperatives, non-profit associations, or other legal forms, make common decisions for the satisfaction of their energy needs, with the aim of providing environmental, social and economic benefits. The overall objective of the study is to gain a better understanding of the environmental, grid and social impacts of local energy communities, as well as of the factors that can potentially enable or inhibit the deployment of such communities. The emergence of prosumers and energy communities raise new challenges in terms of technologies and technical requirements for the interaction with the electricity grid, in terms of the need for new business models and new energy policies and regulatory framework, to encourage these new configurations and unlock their benefits as effectively as possible. In the context of this work, a model for the assessment of LECs viability has been built; it examines the consumption and renewable generation loads, with the possibility to measure the effects of adding a battery storage system in the community configuration. The profitability of residential customers participating in a LEC is investigated for four different technological community scenario: (i) solely stand-alone PV plant (ii) stand-alone PV plant with the addition of a solar battery for self-consumption maximization (iii) stand-alone PV plant with the addition of a battery storage system for Demand Side Management behind-the-meter and (iv) stand-alone PV plant with the addition of a battery storage system for Demand Side Management front-of-the-meter. The economic impact of storage on LEC energy usage has been studied while considering the technical aspects of the proposed system. The simulation analysis – based on real residential demand profiles, renewable generation curves, battery energy storage functioning, market pricing and incentives scheme, showed that energy sharing and collective investment in residential scale renewable assets and batteries can be economically feasible, but the economics can significantly fluctuate with changes in parameters such as technology cost, LECs incentives, electricity prices, and that therefore the convenience of one scenario over the others should be verified each time the conditions change. Also, the type of services for which the battery can get revenues may disrupt the conclusions reached. The aim of the work, however, was to build a model easily adaptable to the variation of these parameters, in order to calculate case by case economics and convenience of any possible community configuration. / Användningen av förnybar energi har visat sig vara avgörande för att minska koldioxidutsläppen från energisystemet, vilket medför förändringar både på produktions- och konsumtionssidan, med en ökad andel förnybar energi i mixen och en förändrad roll för konsumenterna. Från att ha varit passiva aktörer blir konsumenterna nu Prosumers, producenter och konsumenter av egenproducerad energi, med potential att bli en pelare i övergången inom energisektorn. Europeiska unionen har satt upp ambitiösa mål om att förverkliga ett samhälle med låga koldioxidutsläpp senast 2050, vilket har gett upphov till flera energirelaterade initiativ. Ur ett regleringsperspektiv banar Europa verkligen väg för en revolution på den inre energimarknaden, där nya aktörer kommer att introduceras, bland annat lokala energikommuner. I den gradvisa övergången från ett centraliserat till ett decentraliserat system med intelligenta och sammankopplade produktionskällor får konsumenterna producera, lagra, dela eller sälja sin energi direkt eller som energikooperativ, och de kan hantera efterfrågan antingen självständigt eller genom aggregatorer. I detta sammanhang tar energisamhällen form. I enlighet med definitionen i det europeiska direktivet om förnybar energi i den här studien avses med energisamhällen en grupp energianvändare som genom kooperativ, ideella föreningar eller andra juridiska former fattar gemensamma beslut för att tillgodose sina energibehov, i syfte att skapa miljömässiga, sociala och ekonomiska fördelar. Det övergripande målet med studien är att få en bättre förståelse för de miljömässiga, nätmässiga och sociala konsekvenserna av lokala energisamhällen, samt för de faktorer som kan möjliggöra eller hindra införandet av sådana samhällen. Framväxten av prosumenter och energisamhällen ger upphov till nya utmaningar när det gäller teknik och tekniska krav för samverkan med elnätet, när det gäller behovet av nya affärsmodeller och ny energipolitik och regelverk för att uppmuntra dessa nya konfigurationer och frigöra deras fördelar på ett så effektivt sätt som möjligt. Inom ramen för detta arbete har en modell för bedömning av LECs lönsamhet byggts upp. Den undersöker förbrukning och belastning från förnybar produktion, med möjlighet att mäta effekterna av att lägga till ett batterilagringssystem i samhällskonfigurationen. Lönsamheten för privatkunders deltagande i ett LEC undersöks för fyra olika tekniska samhällsscenarier: (i) enbart fristående solcellsanläggning, (ii) fristående solcellsanläggning med tillägg av ett solcellsbatteri för maximering av självförbrukningen, (iii) fristående solcellsanläggning med tillägg av ett batterilagringssystem för styrning av efterfrågan bakom mätaren och (iv) fristående solcellsanläggning med tillägg av ett batterilagringssystem för styrning av efterfrågan framför mätaren. Lagringens ekonomiska inverkan på LECs energianvändning har studerats samtidigt som de tekniska aspekterna av det föreslagna systemet har beaktats. Simuleringsanalysen - som i skrivande stund bygger på verkliga efterfrågeprofiler för bostäder, kurvor för förnybar produktion, batterilagringens funktion, marknadens prissättning och incitamentssystem - visade att energidelning och kollektiva investeringar i förnybara tillgångar och batterier i bostadsområden kan vara ekonomiskt genomförbara, men att ekonomin kan fluktuera avsevärt med förändringar i parametrar som teknikkostnader, incitament för LEC:s och elpriser, och att det därför är lämpligt att kontrollera om det är fördelaktigt att välja ett scenario framför de andra varje gång förhållandena förändras. Även den typ av tjänster som batteriet kan få intäkter för kan påverka de slutsatser som dras. Syftet med arbetet var dock att bygga en modell som lätt kan anpassas till variationen av dessa parametrar, för att från fall till fall beräkna ekonomin och bekvämligheten hos alla möjliga konfigurationer av samhället.

A crucial challenge introduced by the decentralized installations of photovoltaic (PV) systems in the residential sector, is the mismatch between PV electricity generation and the load curve for energy consumption. To overcome this incompatibility between production and consumption, energy storage and demand response are seen as effective solutions. Smart meters and the installation of intelligent smart appliances in homes have paved the way for efficient energy consumption monitoring and active household load control in the residential sector.  The aim of the thesis work is to develop a dynamic energy management algorithm tailored to optimize the energy consumption pattern of controllable household assets to maximize PV selfconsumption. A rolling horizon algorithm based dynamic model was designed using mixedinteger linear programming (MILP) and later compared with the baseline model to understand the real-time operational benefits of the rolling horizon approach.  Analyzing device scheduling patterns based on the feed-in-tariff showed considerable differences in the scheduling approach for both optimization models. A comparative analysis was conducted to understand the system benefits offered by both optimization models under different feed-in-tariff structures. Higher self-consumption rates were achieved through annual scheduling approach, but it does not reflect the real-time operation of the systems in the household. A rolling horizon optimization reflects the real-time operation of the energy system and has a lower self-consumption rate due to a limited optimization horizon. The method indicates the significant potential of self-consumption specially in lieu of decreasing feed-in tariffs. / En viktig utmaning som de decentraliserade installationerna av solcellssystem i bostadssektorn innebär är att elproduktionen från solcellerna inte stämmer överens med belastningskurvan för energiförbrukningen. För att komma till rätta med denna oförenlighet mellan produktion och konsumtion ses energilagring och efterfrågeflexibilitet som effektiva lösningar. Smarta mätare och installation av intelligenta smarta apparater i hemmen har banat väg för effektiv övervakning av energiförbrukningen och aktiv styrning av hushållens belastning i bostadssektorn.  Syftet med avhandlingen är att utveckla en dynamisk energihanteringsalgoritm som är skräddarsydd för att optimera energiförbrukningsmönstret för kontrollerbara hushållstillgångar för att maximera självförbrukningen av solceller. En dynamisk modell baserad på en algoritm med rullande horisont utformades med hjälp av blandad linjär programmering (MILP) och jämfördes senare med basmodellen för att förstå de operativa realtidsfördelarna med metoden med rullande horisont. Analysen av schemaläggningsmönster för enheter baserat på inmatningstariffen visade att det fanns betydande skillnader i schemaläggningsmetoden för båda optimeringsmodellerna. En jämförande analys genomfördes för att förstå de systemfördelar som erbjuds av de båda optimeringsmodellerna under olika strukturer för inmatningstariffer. Högre självförbrukningsnivåer uppnåddes genom den årliga schemaläggningsmetoden, men den återspeglar inte realtidsdriften av systemen i hushållet. En optimering med rullande horisont återspeglar energisystemets drift i realtid och har en lägre självförbrukningsgrad på grund av en begränsad optimeringshorisont. Metoden visar på den betydande potentialen för självförbrukning speciellt i stället för minskande inmatningstariffer.

In order to handle the mismatch between photovoltaic (PV) electricity production and household electricity use, battery storage systems can be utilized. However, the profitability of PV-battery systems in Sweden is poor, and economic incentives for households to invest in such systems are therefore missing. Hence, it is important to improve the profitability to increase the number of PV-battery installations. The aim of this thesis is to investigate the techno-economic potential of a PV-battery system offering ancillary services, more specifically the primary frequency regulation FCR-N. Five cases of residential PV-battery installations are investigated: the first with a PV system only, the second with a PV-battery system to store surplus PV electricity, and the three other cases with PV-battery systems with the ability to regulate the grid through FCR-N to varying degrees. The results show that providing FCR-N with a PV-battery system offers a substantial techno-economic potential for the system owner. By using available battery capacity for FCR-N, the payback time for a PV-battery system can be shortened significantly. With a battery price of EUR 570 per kWh (VAT excluded) and a discount rate of 2%, the payback time for the entire system can decrease from 32 to 9 years if the battery is used for FCR-N regulation. Furthermore, the payback time for a battery storage can be shortened with FCR-N. Calculated with respect to the economic added value of a battery and with a discount rate of 5%, the payback time can decrease from over 100 years to 4 years.

In this thesis the potential benefits of combining a photovoltaic (PV) system with a battery storage are investigated. The thesis is conducted at the company WSP in Uppsala and the aim is to design a PV system for the new city bus depot that is planned to be built in Uppsala, estimate the PV system capacity and investigate whether a battery storage can increase the self-consumption of the system. The results of this study are that the most appropriate installation of the PV modules is to place them horizontally on the roof and by that one can achieve an installed power of 715 kWp and a total annual electricity production of 871 MWh. This corresponds to a self-sufficiency of 29 % and a self-consumption of 92 %, which indicate that overproduction of electricity sometimes occurs. How different battery storages, based on both lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries, affect the system is evaluated by developing a battery model in MATLAB. From the results of the battery model it is concluded that battery storages with a capacity of 0.3–0.8 kWh/kWp are most suitable to combine with the PV system and this applies to both lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries. The interval 0.3–0.8 kWh/kWp corresponds to battery capacities of 200–600 kWh and the self-consumption increases to 93–94 % for the lead-acid battery storages and to 93–95 % for the lithium-ion battery storages. The economic analysis show that it is generally more profitable to increase self-consumption of self-produced PV power than to sell it to the grid. However, the high costs that are associated with the battery storages eliminates the economic benefits of the increased self-consumption of PV power. Therefore, it is not considered possible to justify the installation of a battery storage at the bus depot.

The world is now in a transition towards a more sustainable future. Actions to reduce the green-house gases (GHG) emissions have been promoted and implemented globally, including switching to electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy technologies, such as solar photovoltaics (PV). This has led to a massive increase of EVs and PV adoption worldwide in the recent decade. However, large integration of EVs and PV in buildings and electricity distribution systems pose new challenges such as increased peak loads, power mismatch, component overloading, and voltage violations, etc. Improved synergy between EVs, PV and other building electricity load can overcome these challenges. Coordinated charging of EVs, or so-called EV smart charging, is believed to a promising solution to improve the synergy. This licentiate thesis investigates the synergy between residential EV charging and PV generation with the application of EV smart charging schemes. The investigation in this thesis was carried out on the individual building, community and distribution grid levels. Smart charging models with an objective to reduce the net-load (load - generation) variability in residential buildings were developed and simulated. Reducing the net-load variability implies both reducing the peak loads and increasing the self-consumption of local generation, which will also lead to improved power grid performance. Combined PV-EV grid hosting capacity was also assessed.       Results show that smart charging schemes could improve the PV self-consumption and reduce the peak loads in buildings with EVs and PV systems. The PV self-consumption could be increased up to 8.7% and the peak load could be reduced down to 50%. The limited improvement on self-consumption was due to low EV availability at homes during midday when the solar power peaks. Results also show that EV smart charging could improve the grid performance such as reduce the grid losses and voltage violation occurrences. The smart charging schemes improve the grid hosting capacity for EVs significantly and for PV slightly. It can also be concluded that there was a slight positive correlation between PV and EV hosting capacity in the case of residential electricity distribution grids.

[ES] La restructuración que han sufrido los sectores eléctricos a nivel mundial y las políticas energéticas que se plantean en el futuro en Europa, tienen como objetivo aumentar la competitividad de los consumidores mediante, entre otras acciones, conseguir precios de la electricidad más competitivos. Esta situación resulta especialmente delicada en España donde las carencias del sector eléctrico no han sido paliadas por la ley 54/1997 que modificaba la estructura del sector ni por las sucesivas modificaciones que se han planteado con posterioridad. La falta de transparencia en muchos procesos y la carencia de mecanismos de compra y venta de electricidad han sido dos factores clave de este fracaso. Además, una de las principales razones para este desajuste es precisamente la irrupción de un alto porcentaje de energías renovables en la generación y su deficiente tratamiento regulatorio. Como resultado de esto último surge una gran incertidumbre en los propietarios de los parques de generación renovable, en cuanto a su remuneración y condiciones de actividad. El objetivo principal que busca esta tesis es desarrollar una metodología que permita a los consumidores del sector industrial con unas determinadas características de elevado consumo energético y posibilidad de instalar generación renovable adicional, de planificar y gestionar de manera óptima y dinámica sus recursos y consumos energéticos en aras de un beneficio económico, social y ambiental. Esto implica, fundamentalmente, conocer su forma de consumir energía, flexibilidad en este consumo, así como los factores externos que pueden variarlo. Así mismo, tiene que tener información de los costes de operación del sistema de suministro de energía eléctrica en los que puede influir y de esta forma afrontar su principal reto que es tomar de forma anticipada las decisiones que le permitirá la optimización de su gasto energético participando a la vez en la mejora de los beneficios sociales y ambientales. / [CAT] Worldwide restructuring suffered by electrical sectors together with energy policies that are proposed for the future in Europe aim to an increase of the consumers competitiveness throughout, among other actions, achieving more competitive electricity prices. This is a critical situation in Spain where the shortcomings of the electricity sector have neither been alleviated under Law 54/1997, which modified the structure of the sector, nor with the successive modifications that have been raised subsequently. The lack of transparency in many processes and the lack of mechanisms for buying and selling electricity have been two key factors in this failure. Furthermore, one of the main reasons for this mismatch is precisely the emergence of a high percentage of renewable energy in the generation and its poor regulatory treatment. As a result, a great uncertainty arises in the owners of renewable generation parks, as far as their remuneration and activity conditions are concerned. The main objective of this PhD thesis is to develop a methodology that allows industrial consumers for certain characteristics of high energy consumption and the possibility of installing additional renewable generation, to plan and manage in an optimal and dynamic way their resources and energy consumption for the sake of an economic, social and environmental benefit. That implies, basically, knowing the way of consuming energy, the flexibility in the consumption, as well as the external factors that may vary it. Likewise, they need information on the operating costs of the electric power supply system on which they can have influence, and thus face the main challenge, which is to make in advance the decisions that will allow them to optimize energy expenditure by participating, at the same time, in the improvement of social and environmental benefits. / [EN] La reestructuració dels sectors elèctrics a nivell mundial i les polítiques energètiques que es plantegen en el futur a Europa, tenen com a objectiu augmentar la competitivitat dels consumidors mitjançant, entre altres accions, aconseguir preus de l'electricitat més competitius. Aquesta situació resulta especialment delicada a Espanya, on les carències del sector elèctric no han sigut pal·liades per la llei 54/1997 que modificava l'estructura del sector ni per les successives modificacions que s'han plantejat posteriorment. La falta de transparència en molts processos i la carència de mecanismes de compra i venda d'electricitat, han sigut dos factors clau d'aquest fracàs. A més, una de les principals raons per a aquest desajust és precisament la irrupció d'un alt percentatge d'energies renovables en la generació i el seu deficient tractament regulador. Com a resultat d'aquest últim fet, sorgeix una gran incertesa en els propietaris dels parcs de generació renovable, pel que fa a la seua remuneració i les seues condicions d'activitat. L'objectiu principal que busca aquesta tesi és desenvolupar una metodologia que permeta els consumidors del sector industrial amb unes determinades característiques d'elevat consum energètic i possibilitat d'instal·lar generació renovable addicional, planificar i gestionar d'una manera òptima i dinàmica els seus recursos i consums fonamentalment, conèixer la seua forma de consumir energia, flexibilitat en aquest consum, així com els factors externs que poden variar-lo. Així mateix, ha de tindre informació dels costs d'operació del sistema de subministrament d'energia elèctrica en què pot influir i, d'aquesta manera, afrontar el seu principal repte que és prendre de forma anticipada les decisions que li permetrà l'optimització de la seua despesa energètica, participant alhora en la millora dels beneficis socials i ambientals. / Morcillo Marco, AI. (2020). Metodología para la evaluación de la implantación de recursos de generación y demanda distribuidos en grandes consumidores en.entornos de mercado competitivos. Caso de aplicación [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/144651 / TESIS

Despite the share of renewable energies worldwide is increasing, which can help in reducing the CO2 emissions, their unpredictability has become a problem due to the mismatch between generation and demand. Among the different alternatives to solve this problem, energy storage is a very interesting solution. Depending on the aim of the storage, there are two types: intra‑day or seasonal. The former corresponds normally to a highly efficient and high‑cost storage, such as the Li‑ion; whilst the latter is a low efficient and low‑cost storage. An example of this second type of storage is the power‑to‑heat‑to‑power storage, whose efficiency is mainly determined by the heat‑to‑power converter, and it can be increased if the waste heat produced in the converter is reused in a combined heat and power system.Given that the residential sector represents a large amount of the global energy use (both electricity and heat), this study has considered a power‑to‑heat‑to‑power storage in a fully electrified residential building with a PV installation in order to increase self‑consumption and reduce the cost. Both the heating, electricity and cooling demand are supplied by the system.As this storage technology is currently under an early stage of development, this project aims to understand the main challenges for this storage and the advantages over a very well settled technology, such as the Li-ion. In order to achieve this objective, a model has been created in Matlab. A parametric study has been conducted in which optimum sizing of the components for several scenarios have been considered, as a means to identify the most important parameters that could hinder the feasibility of the power‑to‑heat‑to‑power storage system.From the optimization it was concluded that the scenarios with a thermally driven heat pump for cooling, resulted in larger installations leading to higher cost due to the low coefficient of performance. Regarding the other scenarios which consider an electrical heat pump for cooling, this technology can surpass the Li-ion performance for heat‑to‑power efficiencies over 20 %. In these cases, the feasibility is clearly hindered by the cost per energy capacity, which must be below 5 €/kWh and could be achieved with silicon; and the cost per power capacity that must be around 300 €/kW. An example of a heat‑to‑power converter could be the TPV technology which is a solid‑state converter, whose efficiency is currently around 30 % and is expected to reduce its cost up to 300 €/kW. In smaller systems, in which the stand‑by heat losses have more impact over the system’s feasibility due to the larger surface to volume ratio, it is imperative to reduce these heat losses, as well as reduce the cost per energy and power capacities. In addition, it is remarkable that there is no significant improvement when increasing the heat‑to‑power efficiencies over certain values. To finish, as this technology increases its feasibility when implemented in large systems, further studies should be done in the industrial and tertiary sector.

This Master´s thesis deals with the coordination and the order of interventions during the appearance of a major accident due to a blackout. It describes in detail the chronology and the priorities of what the shift engineer should do when working on the self-consumption restoration. Furthermore, it gives the variants for determination of the batch of radiation people are obtained by, while working on the self-consumption restoration.

The Swedish government has set a target of achieving 100% renewable electricity production by 2040, and this target is reflected in the solar strategy of the Swedish Energy Agency that states it’s possible that solar electricity may represent 5-10% of the Swedish electricity mix by 2040. It’s not easy for different participants such as individuals, companies, farmers and housing associations to find out the value of solar self-consumption and the value of surplus solar electricity that is fed into the power grid, because there are about 120 electricity trading companies and about 170 electricity grid companies in Sweden. The electricity companies have different tariffs. The purpose of this degree project is to investigate how the value of solar electricity varies depending on which electricity trading company and electricity grid company that different participants such as individuals and companies have, and also to make profitability calculations for different cases concerning five of the major electricity trading companies and electricity grid companies, respectively. Data needed for calculating the value of solar self-consumption and sold surplus electricity are collected from the electricity trading companies and electricity grid companies. Profitability is calculated by using an Excel template from the project ”Capital budget for solar cells”. This degree project shows that the value of solar self-consumption is worth more than the value of sold surplus electricity in all cases, both for individuals and for companies. For the companies, the difference in value between solar self-consumption and sold surplus electricity is much greater than for individuals, because the companies studied in this degree project don’t receive any tax reduction for the surplus electricty that is fed into the power grid. The higher the value of solar self-consumption and sold surplus electricity, the more profitable the solar cell investment becomes. The lower the value of solar self-consumption and sold surplus electricity, the less profitable the solar cell investment becomes. The prerequisites needed to achieve 5-10% of solar electricity in Sweden are strengthening or renewal of the electricity grid, budget support for solar cells, financial support systems, education about the potential for solar electricity and how it works and the willpower among various participants to invest in solar cells.

Currently, Sälen area in Sweden is finding issues in the power grid due to an irregular load profile with high peak power demand and an infrastructure that is becoming undersized. Distributed PV-battery systems are considered a possible solution to solve this problem.A PV-battery system for a typical vacation home in this town is designed and optimized to give the best economical solution to the homeowner. Then, a techno-economic evaluation of the system is performed. A photovoltaic system and an only grid connected system are also simulated and compared. Finally, a sensitivity analysis is performed on different simulation inputs.HOMER Grid software is used to simulate and size the system. Firstly, a pre-sized system is modelled using average or typical market prices and component characteristics. Afterwards, real market components that fit into the pre-sized model are modelled to get a real system design. The optimized design includes a PV system of 13 kW, a BYD lithium ion battery of 5.1 kWh capacity and a Sungrow hybrid inverter of 10 kW.The economic evaluation of the system indicates that, with current market prices and subsidies, the optimized system is the most economical solution for the homeowner compared to the other systems. In the sensitivity analysis, a significant risk for the profitability of the system is found on the compensation from selling electricity to the grid.The technical evaluation of the system indicates that the battery provides a significant peak-shaving effect that can benefit the power grid. However, large solar energy sales to the grid with high power peaks that could cause instability issues are observed.