In this thesis, I proposed that individuals high in relative autonomy toward exercise would make fewer excuses for personal goal failures and that endorsement of certain types of excuses would foster commitment/internalization toward exercise, limiting future excuse-making. Excuses were expected to vary in effectiveness at removing culpability and enhancing commitment. In 3 studies, relative autonomy was measured or primed. Participants considered past personal goal failures, and sometimes provided excuses, and in one study, participants received expert excuse tolerant/intolerant feedback. Contrary to predictions, excuse-making was similar across all levels of relative autonomy. The results showed, however, that (a) some excuses effectively remove culpability for failure and maintain commitment to exercise goals; (b) such excuses are used more frequently than their less effective counterparts and that this selective may be stronger for those high in relative autonomy toward exercise; and (c) an excuse-tolerant social environment can foster commitment/internalization of exercise goals.

Motivation är en betydelsefull kompontent för en individs utövande utav studier. Studien utgick ifrån motivationsteorin Self- determination theory. Syftet med studien var att redogöra för relationen mellan högskolestudenters demografiska faktorer och vilken typ av motivation som driver dem till att utöva studier, samt relationen mellan motivationstyperna. Med typ av motivation avses amotivation, inre samt yttre motivation. Studien bestod utav 102 studenter, varav 49 män och 53 kvinnor, från en högskola i mellersta Sverige som fick besvara enkäten The Academic Motivation Scale. Studiens resultat visade bland annat att kvinnliga studenter hade en högre nivå utav yttre motivation än manliga studenter. Resultatet visade inga könsskillnader inom inre motivation och amotivation. Resultatet påvisade även att studenter som hade en högre nivå utav yttre motivation samtidigt hade en högre nivå utav inre motivation. Förslag på framtida forskning inom området är att fokusera på studenter inom andra typer av utbildningar och utbildningsnivåer.

I denna studie undersöktes elevers uppfattningar om hur de anser att lärares arbetssätt, ämnets lektionsinnehåll och om vad som motiverar dem till att delta i ämnet idrott och hälsa. Det un-dersöktes även om det fanns några eventuella skillnader mellan könen, det vill säga om flick-or och pojkar hade olika uppfattningar i frågorna. Enkäter användes och delades ut på en gymnasieskola och besvarades av 105 elever i olika klasser som läste idrott och hälsa 1. Ele-verna som deltog i enkäten valdes ut genom ett bekvämlighetsurval då kontakter på skolan fanns sedan tidigare. Teorin som används genom studien är Deci & Ryans motivationsteori ”Self-Determination Theory”. Resultatet visade att flickor och pojkar motiveras olika mycket av lärarens arbetssätt. Flickor värderar lärarens arbetssätt högre än pojkar. Även vilket lek-tionsinnehåll eleverna motiveras av till att delta på lektionerna samt varför de deltar i under-visningen skiljer sig åt mellan könen. Flickor motiveras mer av faktorer som leder till inre motivation i jämförelse med pojkar exempelvis som att förbättra/upprätthålla hälsan. Pojkarna drivs mer av yttre motivationsfaktorer än flickorna, att vinna på lektionerna eller att få betyg är två faktorer som motiverar dem till att delta. En gemensam motivationsfaktor som får både pojkar och flickor att vilja delta på lektionerna i idrott och hälsa är glädjen till ämnet.

In this thesis, I proposed that individuals high in relative autonomy toward exercise would make fewer excuses for personal goal failures and that endorsement of certain types of excuses would foster commitment/internalization toward exercise, limiting future excuse-making. Excuses were expected to vary in effectiveness at removing culpability and enhancing commitment. In 3 studies, relative autonomy was measured or primed. Participants considered past personal goal failures, and sometimes provided excuses, and in one study, participants received expert excuse tolerant/intolerant feedback. Contrary to predictions, excuse-making was similar across all levels of relative autonomy. The results showed, however, that (a) some excuses effectively remove culpability for failure and maintain commitment to exercise goals; (b) such excuses are used more frequently than their less effective counterparts and that this selective may be stronger for those high in relative autonomy toward exercise; and (c) an excuse-tolerant social environment can foster commitment/internalization of exercise goals.

Cardiovascular disease is currently the leading cause of death in Canada and other developed countries. Physical activity based cardiac rehabilitation programs have been shown to reduce the likelihood of subsequent cardiac events and even reverse the disease process. However, factors influencing physical activity in cardiac patients are still not clearly understood. The overall objective of this dissertation was therefore to better understand motivation and physical activity in a cardiac rehabilitation context. Specifically, theory-based motivational variables were studied as correlates of physical activity. To accomplish this objective, a two-purpose research approach was taken. First, two articles (Article-1 and Article-2) aimed to test and integrate concepts from two strong motivational theories: Self-Efficacy Theory (SET) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) into one comprehensive model using the novel and rigorous approach of Noar and Zimmerman (2005). The second purpose of this dissertation was to extend the findings from the first purpose by investigating physical activity and motivational patterns over a 24-month period in cardiac patients (Article 3). With regards to the first purpose, Article-1 revealed that the integration of SDT and SET was feasible as the integrated model had good model fit, explained more variance in self-determined motivation, confidence, and physical activity and supported similar number of hypothesised links in a cross-sectional cardiac sample as well two other samples: primary care adults and university students. Due to the cross-sectional nature of Article-1, Article-2 tested the integrated SDT-SET model from cardiac patients with longitudinal data of patients following a cardiac rehabilitation program. Although no motivational variables predicted residual change in physical activity at 4-months, this longitudinal model was found to have good model fit. Across both articles, the integration of SDT and SET was found to be possible. However, more research is needed to further test the integration of these theories. As for the second purpose of this dissertation, Article-3 investigated physical activity and motivational patterns of cardiac rehabilitation participants over the course of 24 months. Distinct patterns were found for physical activity, self-determined motivation, barrier self-efficacy and outcome expectations. In addition, individuals in the higher patterns of the motivational/expectancy variables had greater probability of being in the maintenance physical activity pattern compared to individuals in the other motivational/expectancy patterns. Therefore, this article extended findings from the first purpose by linking SDT and SET variables to long-term physical activity behaviour. SDT and SET should continue to be investigated together in order to increase our understanding of the mechanisms leading to greater motivation and subsequent increases in physical activity levels. Having a theoretically supported pathway to build motivation is ideal to inform future interventions and cardiac rehabilitation programs.

Although there is a well-known relationship between physical activity and well-being, particularly among women, this association is complex. There is a call for more research regarding key moderating processes that will help to explain the circumstances under which physical activity can lead to optimal well-being. The overall purpose of this dissertation was to examine the influence of situational motivation (Self-Determination Theory; Deci & Ryan, 1985) and passion (Dualistic Model of Passion; Vallerand et al., 2003) as predictors of the relationship between physical activity and indicators of well-being, namely affect and vitality, in active women with multiple life roles. The influence of perceived intensity (RPE) was also investigated. Study 1 followed a within-subject experimental design (N = 40). Article 1 revealed a significant interaction effect between RPE and introjected regulation whereby at low levels of introjection, RPE was positively associated with changes in positive affect with a running task. In Article 2, identified and introjected regulations were positively associated with pre- to post-running increases in positive affect. Moreover, participants with high introjection reported a greater increase in positive affect with a running task but also a greater decline in affect after a non-physical control task. Study 2 employed the Experience Sampling Method over a 14-day period (N = 66). Article 3 revealed a novel motivational sequence whereby introjected regulation was associated with higher RPE, intrinsic motivation (as well as RPE), was positively related to post-physical activity positive affect and the positive influence of identified regulation on affect appeared 3-hours post-activity. Lastly, Article 4 revealed that women’s daily affect was related to engaging in their passionate activity (i.e., physical activity) and that higher harmonious passion and lower obsessive passion led to more stable positive affect across days. Vitality, as measured at endpoint, was negatively predicted by obsessive passion and positively by harmonious passion. The findings are discussed in relation to theoretical tenants and previous studies. The unique results give rise to interesting avenues of future enquiry such as exploring motivational profiles. It is recommended that wellness interventions should emphasize women’s internalization of physical activity in hopes of achieving balanced, sensible physical activity.

Despite evidence to support physically active and passive leisure as significant contributors to well-being, for working mothers, fitting leisure into an already busy schedule can be challenging. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of perceived time constraints and self-determination for physically active and passive leisure on conflict between these two leisure domains and the influence of this conflict on well-being among physically active working mothers. A total of 66 women who were physically active, worked at least 30 hours per week outside the home and had at least one child living in the home, participated in the study. At baseline, the participants completed a basic intake assessment in addition to validated questionnaires to measure time constraints and motivation for physically active and passive leisure. A two-week period of electronic experience sampling followed to evaluate leisure engagement. A final set of measures to evaluate conflict between physically active and passive leisure over the two weeks, and general well-being were completed at the end of the experience sampling period. Results indicated that despite relatively high levels of satisfaction with time available for both physically active and passive leisure, perceived time constraints were associated with increased goal conflict as are non-self-determined motivation for physically active leisure and self-determined motivation for passive leisure. Controlling for engagement in physically active and passive leisure, well-being is negatively influenced by goal conflict. Recommendations are provided regarding areas for additional research to further our understanding of the impact of opposing motivational orientations on goal conflict including the incorporation of Vallerand’s Dualistic Model of Passion (Vallerand et al., 2003). From a practical standpoint, the implications of the study results for interventions designed to address general well-being in middle class working mothers through targeting factors related to time constraints and goal conflict are discussed.

Forskningen om det psykologiska kontraktet är ofta okänd i organisationer som använder sig av mål- och prestationsstyrning (Petersitzke, 2009). Denna studies syfte var att undersöka med- arbetares upplevelser av mål- och prestationsstyrning relaterad till innehållet i deras psykologiska kontrakt. Mål- och prestationsstyrning undersöktes utifrån måltydlighet och feedback respektive psykologisk empowerment. Det psykologiska kontraktets innehåll studerades utifrån löften och åtaganden samt tillit och rättvisa. Urvalet bestod av 77 personer i olika organisationer som fick besvara en webenkät. Resultatet visade samband mellan upplevelsen av måltydlighet och feedback och tilliten till arbetsgivaren liksom ett samband mellan upplevelsen av måltydlighet och feedback och arbetsgivarens löften och åtaganden. Utifrån self-determinationteorin tycktes det finnas möjligheter att genom mål- och prestationsstyrning öka samstämmigheten mellan medarbetare och arbetsgivare gällande det psykologiska kontraktets innehåll.

Individer som utövar någon typ av sport utsätter sig för både psykiskt och fysisk påfrestning. Denna påfrestning kan vara något som stressar individen och måste därför hanteras och bemästras på något sätt.  Syftet med studien var att undersöka vad som motiverar hobby- respektive professionella ryttare, finns det någon skillnad i upplevelsen av motgångar i sin sport mellan hobbyryttare och professionella tävlingsryttare, och om grupperna har olika sätt att bemästra motgångar. Deltagarna var 11 kvinnor, fem professionella ryttare och sex hobbyryttare. Analysen gjordes genom meningskoncentrering, där olika teman utformades efter studiens frågeställningar. Resultatet visade bland annat på att hobbyryttarna använde sig utav undvikande bemästrande strategi i större utsträckning än vad de professionella ryttarna gjorde. Detta skulle kunna bero på att professionella ryttare använde sig mer utav problemfokuserad bemästrandestrategier därför att de hade mer rutin och kunskap inom sporten än hobbyryttarna hade.

Vad som motiverar olika grupper har länge diskuteras och har varit en viktig del i hur företag är strukturerade och hur de arbetar. Arbetsuppgifter och arbetsformer är föränderliga och på senare tid har rollen som konsult vuxit fram som en frekvent förekommande och även attraktiv arbetsform. Ett av de mest attraktiva yrkena för studenter är yrket som managementkonsult, vilket är ett varierande men påfrestande yrke med relativt låg finansiell ersättning per nedlagd tid. Denna attraktion säger till viss del emot vad erkända motivationsteorier menar motiverar dessa personer och därmed studenters val av yrke. Uppfattningar om Generation Y, personer födda mellan 1979-1994, menar att finansiella belöningar är viktigt för denna grupp. Samtidigt menar Self-determination Theory att detta borde tränga bort den inre motivationen, som enligt undersökningar gjorda för uppsatsen, är viktig i val av yrke. Enligt dessa undersökningar attraheras respondenterna inte till yrket som managementkonsult på grund av pengarna. Det är framförallt personlig utveckling samt intressanta och varierande arbetsuppgifter som lockar personer som studerar management. Vidare har det påvisats viktigt att få lära ut sin kunskap till andra, vilket ligger i linje med yrkets karaktär. Det sistnämnda kan vara en trend som gjort konsult som arbetsform attraktivt, vilket är öppet för vidare forskning. Även de indikationer som visat att den finansiella ersättningen är mindre viktig i val av yrke i Uppsala och kanske även Sverige kan undersökas djupare, i kontrast mot att undersökningarna för uppfattningarna om Generation Y är gjorda i USA.