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L’opinion publique est consciente que l’électronique qui nous entoure présente un coût de développement et de production important en plus d’un impact environnemental non négligeable. C’est dans le but de résoudre ces inconvénients que l’électronique organique est étudiée et développée. L’électronique organique a été introduite par la découverte de polymères conducteurs, par les prix Nobel de chimie de l’année 2000, Alan J. Heeger, Alan G. MacDiarmid et Hideki Shirakawa. Depuis lors cette technologie c’est grandement développée, on note ainsi de nos jours la commercialisation des écrans OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) mais aussi d’autres composants organiques comme les MEMS (Micro ElectroMechanical System), des systèmes liant l’électronique et la mécanique. Ces MEMS organiques sont de plus en plus étudiés et développés dû à une plus grande flexibilité des semi-conducteurs organiques par rapport à leurs homologues inorganiques. Cependant, même si la recherche sur la mécanique des polymères et l'électronique des semi-conducteurs organiques est avancée, l'interaction électromécanique de ces semi-conducteurs n'est que peu étudiée. Néanmoins, il est nécessaire de comprendre cette interaction pour développer l'électronique flexible de demain. L'objectif de ces travaux est donc d'approfondir les connaissances sur l'interaction électromécanique au sein des semi-conducteurs organiques et de développer des outils/méthodes facilement transposables à l'étude de nouvelles molécules. Pour mieux comprendre l'interaction entre la déformation de la structure des semi-conducteurs et leur réponse électrique, ces derniers sont fabriqués sous forme de monocristaux pour étudier un arrangement moléculaire parfait, sans défauts, dans les trois dimensions de l'espace. Ainsi donc dans un premier temps, l'influence de la structure moléculaire sur la mobilité des charges a été étudiée dans le cas du rubrène. Même s'il est majoritairement avancé que la distance intermoléculaire est la raison de la variation de mobilité dans le rubrène, il s'avère que la réponse électrique dépend en réalité d'un réarrangement moléculaire et de la variation d'une multitude de paramètres intra/intermoléculaires modifiant le couplage électronique entre molécules. Dans un deuxième temps, la réponse électromécanique de transistors, à diélectrique d’air, à base de rubrène a été étudiée. Dans ces systèmes plus complexes, plusieurs paramètres sont modifiés lors de la déformation. A l'aide du facteur de jauge, il est possible de mettre en évidence que la réponse électromécanique de ces transistors dépend majoritairement de la modification mécanique et électrique du contact entre le semi-conducteur et les électrodes. La forte amélioration de la réponse électrique des transistors a permis la fabrication de capteurs de forces capables de mesurer des forces de l'ordre de 230 nN. Finalement, les méthodes développées et utilisées lors de ces travaux ont été utilisées pour amorcer la fabrication et caractérisation électrique de transistors à base de pérovskites hybrides, dans le but d'étudier l'interaction électromécanique de ces matériaux émergents. / The public mind is aware of electronics drawbacks, the costs of development and production are important and the environmental impact can be denied. In order to solve those downsides, the organic electronics is studied and developed. This electronics have been introduced with the discovery of conductive polymers by the Nobel prices of chemistry from the year 2000, Alan J. Heeger, Alan G. MacDiarmid et Hideki Shirakawa. Since then, this technology has been widely developed and nowadays OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) screens as well as others devices like MEMS (Micro ElectroMechanical System), systems connecting electronics and mechanics, are commercialized. Those organic MEMS are more and more studied and developed due to a better flexibility of the organic semiconductors compared to the inorganic ones. However, even if the research on the polymer mechanics and semiconductor electronics is advanced, the electromechanical interaction of the organic semiconductors is poorly studied. Nevertheless, it is necessary to understand this interaction in order to develop the flexible electronics of tomorrow. Thus, this work has been focused on investigating the electromechanical interaction inside the organic semiconductors and developing tools/methods usable to study with ease new molecules. To better understand the electromechanical interaction between molecular structure and electrical response, the semiconductors are shaped into single crystals, in order to study a perfect molecular layout, without imperfections, in the three space dimensions. Hence, in the first instance, the influence of the molecular structure on the charge mobility was studied on rubrene. Even if is commonly assumed that the variation of the intermolecular distance causes the mobility changes inside rubrene, it turns out that this electrical variation is due to a reorganization of the molecules and variations of multiples inter/intramolecular parameters which modify the electronic coupling. In the second instance, the electromechanical response of air-gap transistors based on rubrene has been studied. In this more complicated systems, multiple parameters variate during the deflection. With the use of Gauge factor, it is possible to prove that the electromechanical response of those systems depends mainly on the mechanical and electrical modification of the interface electrodes/semiconductor. The high improvement of the electrical response of those air-gap transistors has been used to fabricate pressure sensors capable to detect forces as small as 230 nN. Finally, the methods developed during the previous works have been used to start the synthesis and characterization of hybrid perovskite transistors in order to study the electromechanical interaction of those emerging materials.

El objetivo de esta tesis es la síntesis de películas delgadas de SnS utilizando técnicas de bajo coste con el fin de fabricar células solares. Nuestra contribución radica en estudiar nuevos materiales susceptibles de ser utilizados para aplicaciones fotovoltaicas, y que puedan ser preparados con técnicas de bajo coste como la técnica de Pyrolysis de Spray Químico (CSP) y caracterizar algunos materiales elegidos para este fin como el Sulfuro de Estaño (SnS). Se han fabricado células solares a partir de la disposición de capas: Mo / SnS / Tampón / i-ZnO / ZnO: Al / Al / Metal. Las capas de buffer serían: In2S3 o CdS. En la primera etapa hemos procedido a la optimización de los parámetros de deposición de películas delgadas de SnS usando la técnica de la CSP, -Variación de la relación [S] / [Sn]. -Variación de la temperatura del substrato. -Variación de la naturaleza del sustrato utilizando sustrato como vidrio, óxido de estaño de indio (ITO) y vidrio recubierto de molibdeno. Las fuentes de productos químicos y disolventes utilizados son: - Cloruro de dihidrato dihidratado para Tin (Sn), Thiourea, Agua destilada como disolvente de la solución, Ethanol (10% de 50mL) con el fin de reducir la tensión superficial del agua que es 72 Nm-1, para permitir la dispersión de la solución depositada sobre el sustrato fácilmente. En una segunda etapa se han dopado pel¿culas delgadas de SnS con algún elemento en la tabla de Mendeleiev para modificar las propiedades f¿sicas y qu¿micas de las pel¿culas. Los elementos químicos utilizados fueron: Plata, Aluminio y Hierro. Se han utilizado varias técnicas de caracterización: - Difracción de rayos X (XRD) para la estructura cristalina de las películas - Espectroscopía Raman para la calidad de las películas - Microscopía electrónica de barrido (SEM) para morfología superficial - Microscopía de Fuerza Atómica (AFM) para topografía de superficie - Análisis dispersivo de energía de rayos X (EDAX) adjunto a SEM para la composición de la película - Espectrofotometría óptica para la transmisión y la determinación del gap - Método de 4 puntas para medición de resistividad del SnS dopado -Mott-Schottky para determinar el tipo de semiconductor y la concentración de portadores Los principales resultados obtenidos en esta tesis pueden resumirse como sigue: -Las películas delgadas mono-sulfuro (SnS) deben depositarse sobre un sustrato de vidrio con [S] / [Sn] igual a una (1) y la temperatura del sustrato igual a 350 ° C para obtener películas densas, bien cubiertas y homogéneas sin agujeros Y grietas. Distancia entre la boquilla al sustrato 25 cm, volumen pulverizado 5 ml, presión de aire 0,7 bar y velocidad de pulverización de 1,5 ml / min. - Para películas dopadas por Plata y Aluminio, todas las películas son estructura ortorrómbica con (111) como pico principal. La intensidad del pico principal aumenta cuando el porcentaje de elemento dopante aumenta en la solución inicial sin ninguna fase secundaria para el dopaje con Al y con Ag8SnS6 y Ag para el dopaje Ag. - El análisis de SEM y AFM demuestra que el elemento dopante Ag no tiene efecto en la morfología y ni en la topografía mientras que el dopaje Al actúa sobre la morfología superficial produciendo una morfología que presenta muchos agujeros para muestras dopadas de 3% a 7%. - EDAX destaca un aumento de Ag en películas cuando la cantidad de Ag aumenta en la solución con S/ Sn¿0,98 cerca de 1 al 5% de porcentaje de dopado de Ag donde como para el dopaje EDAX destaca la mejora de la estequiometría con un aumento del porcentaje de Al Atómica en películas cuando la concentración de Al aumenta en la solución inicial con S / Sn = 0, 99 al 10%. - La resistividad de las muestras dopadas con Ag y Al aumenta con la concentración de dopado y se observa un aumento del gap óptico de 1.66eV a 1.70eV para SnS dopado por Ag y SnS dopado por Al, respectivamente. / ß-In2S3 thin films deposited by Chemical Spray Pyrolysis technique at different substrate temperatures (250 °C-300 °C-350 °C) showed well crystallized thin films with (0 0 12) as preferred direction perpendicular to the plane containing the surface of glass substrate. SEM images showed dense, uniform, well-covered layers that adhere well to substrates and no crack and void space were noted for all substrate temperatures. Microanalysis X confirms the presence of In and S elements with good stoichiometry after vacuum annealing for 30 minutes. Raman spectroscopy analysis confirms ß-In2S3 phase with more prominent modes after vacuum annealing. We also noted a reduction in the gap energies after annealing for films prepared at 250 °C and 350 °C substrate temperatures while for those prepared at 300 °C, the energy of the gap remains stable. Tin mono-sulfide (SnS) thin films must be deposited onto glass substrate with [S]/[Sn] ratio equal to one (1) and substrate temperature equal to 350 °C to obtained dense, well-covered, and homogeneous films without pinholes and cracks. Distance between nozzle to substrate is kept to 25cm, sprayed volume 5mL, air pressure 0.7bar and spray rate 1.5 mL/min. Films doped with Silver (Ag) and Aluminum (Al) were all orthorhombic structure with (111) as main peak. The intensity of main peak increased when the percentage of dopant element increased in the initial solution without any secondary phase for Al-doping films and with Ag8SnS6 and Ag for Ag-doping ones. SEM and AFM analysis showed that Ag-doping element had no effect in the morphology and the topography while Al-doping affected the surface morphology with "fishing net" like morphology with lots of holes for samples doped from 3% to 7%. EDS highlighted an increase of Ag in films when its amount increased in the solution with S/Sn¿0.98 near to 1 at 5% of Ag-doping percentage where as for Al-doping EDS highlighted improvement of stoichiometry with an increase of Al percentage atomic in films when Al concentration increased in the initial solution with S/Sn¿0.99 at 10%. Electrical and energy band gap measurement showed a decrease of resistivity when Ag and Al percentages increased in the solution to reach relatively low resistivity of 108¿.cm and 170¿.cm at 10% for both, and an increased of energy band gap when the Ag and Al-doping elements increased in the solution with 1.66eV and 1.70eV for SnS doped with Ag and SnS doped with Al, respectively. Spray pyrolyzed SnS thin films doped with indium were studied using various optical and electrical techniques. Structural analysis shows that all films crystallize in orthorhombic structure with (111) as a preferential direction without secondary phases. Doping of SnS layers with indium results in better morphology with increased grain size. Absorption measurements indicate dominant direct transition with energy decreasing from around 1.7 eV to 1.5 eV with increased indium supply. Apart from direct transition, an indirect one, of energy of around 1.05 eV, independent on indium doping was identified. The photoluminescence study revealed two donors to acceptor transitions between two deep defect levels and one shallower with energy of around 90 meV. The observed transitions did not depend significantly on In concentration. The conductivity measurements reveal thermal activation of conductivity with energy decreasing from around 165 meV to 145 meV with increased In content. Finally, we were investigated the J-V characteristics of FTO/CdS/SnS,FTO/ZnO/CdS/SnS, FTO/ZnO:Al/CdS/SnS, FTO/ZnO:Al/SnS and FTO/In2S3/SnS solar cells and we found that efficiencies are very low due probably to the recombination at the junction, grain boundaries, etc. / L'objectiu d'aquesta tesi és la síntesi de pel·lícules primes de SnS utilitzant tècniques de baix cost per tal de fabricar cèl·lules solars amb alta eficiència. La nostra contribució rau en estudiar nous materials susceptibles de ser utilitzats per a aplicacions fotovoltaiques, i que puguin ser preparats amb tècniques de baix cost com la tècnica de Spray Piròlisis Químic (CSP) i caracteritzar alguns materials triats per a aquest fi, com ara el Sulfur de estany (SnS). S'han fabricat cèl·lules solars a partir de la disposició de capes: Mo/SnS /Tampó/i-ZnO/ZnO: Al/ Metall. Les capes de per al bufer intermèdi has sigut de In2S3 i CdS. En la primera etapa hem procedit a l'optimització dels paràmetres de deposició de pel·lícules primes de SnS usant la tècnica CSP. -Variació de la relació [S] / [Sn]. -Variació de la temperatura Ts del substrat. -Variació de la naturalesa del substrat utilitzant substrat com: vidre simple, òxid d'estany d'indi (ITO) i vidre recobert de molibdè. Les fonts de productes químics i dissolvents utilitzats han sigut; Clorur d'estany per a l'estany (Sn), thiourea per sofre (S). Aigua destil·lada com a dissolvent de la solució. Ethanol (10% de 50ml) per tal de reduir la tensió superficial de l'aigua que és 72 Nm-1, per a permetre la dispersió de la solució dipositada fàcilment sobre el substrat. En una segona etapa s'han dopat pel.lícules primes de SnS amb algun element en la taula de Mendeleiev per modificar les propietats físiques i químiques de les pel.l¿cules. Els elements químics utilitzats són: Plata (Ag+), alumini (Al3+), Ferro (Fe2+), Coure (Cu2+) i Antimoni (SB3+) com a font de nitrat de plata (AgNO3), Clorur d'alumini (AlCl3) (FeCl2·4H2O ), Clorur de Coure (CuCl2 i Clorur de Antimoni (SbCl3). S'han utilitzat diverses tècniques de caracterització: - Difracció de raigs X (XRD) per a l'estructura de les pel·lícules i cristal - Raman Spectroscopy per a la qualitat de les pel·lícules - Microscòpia electrònica de rastreig (SEM) per morfologia superficial - Microscòpia de Força Atòmica (AFM) per topografia de superfície - Anàlisi dispersiu d'energia de raigs X (EDAX) adjunt a SEM per a la composició de la pel·lícula -Espectrofotometría per a la transmissió i el mesurament de la banda d'energia utilitzant la trama de Tauc - Tècnica de punta-sonda per a mesurament de resistivitat amb dopat SnS -Mott-Schottky per determinar el tipus de semiconductor i la concentració de portadors Els principals resultats obtinguts en aquesta tesi poden resumir així: -Les pel·lícules primes mico-sulfur (SnS) han de dipositar-sobre un substrat de vidre amb [S]/[Sn] igual a una (1) i la temperatura del substrat igual a 350 °C per obtenir pel·lícules denses, ben cobertes i homogènies sense forats I esquerdes. Distància entre el filtre al substrat 25 cm, volum polvoritzat 5 ml, pressió d'aire 0,7 bar i velocitat de polvorització de 1,5 ml / min. Per pel·lícules dopades per Plata i alumini, totes les pel·lícules són estructura ortorrómbica amb (111) com pic principal. La intensitat del pic principal augmenta quan el percentatge d'element dopant augmenta en la solució inicial sense cap fase secundària per al dopatge amb Al i amb Ag8SnS6 i Ag per al dopatge Ag. L'anàlisi de SEM i AFM demostra que l'element dopant Ag no té efecte en la morfologia i la topografia mentre que el dopatge en actua sobre la morfologia superficial produint una morfologia que presenta molts forats per a mostres dopades de 3% a 7%. EDAX destaca un augment de Ag en pel·lícules quan la quantitat d'Ag augmenta en la solució amb S / Sn¿0,98 prop d'1 a 5% de percentatge de dopatge d'Ag on com per al dopatge EDAX destaca la millora de l'estequiometria amb un augment del percentatge d'al Atòmica en pel·lícules quan la concentració d'al augmenta en la solució inicial amb S / Sn = 0,99 al 10%. / Sall, T. (2017). Preparation and Characterization of SnS thin films by Chemical Spray Pyrolysis for fabrication of solar cells [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/95412 / TESIS

Orientador: Italo Odone Mazali / Dissertação ( mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Quimica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-13T04:18:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Correa_DeleonNascimento_M.pdf: 2416044 bytes, checksum: 1853938c864df0a03a91908eb0f6353b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Resumo: Este trabalho reporta o estudo e o desenvolvimento da metodologia de síntese e de caracterização de nanopartículas isoladas e nanopartículas heteroestruturadas caroço@casca (NCC) envolvendo os óxidos semicondutores (TiO2, CeO2 e SnO2) impregnados em suporte poroso funcional (vidro poroso Vycor ¿ PVG). Empregou-se a metodologia de Ciclos de Impregnação-Decomposição (CID) alternados de compostos metalorgânicos, a partir da técnica de decomposição de precursores metalogânicos (MOD). A metodologia CID prosseguiu com a impregnação dos compostos metalorgânicos di-(propóxido)-di-(2-etilhexanoato) de titânio (IV) [Ti(OnPr)2(hex)2], 2-etilhexanoato de cério (III) [Ce(hex)2] e 2-etilhexanoato de estanho (II) [Sn(hex)2] no PVG em condições controladas. Os estudos das curvas de ganho de massa cumulativo em função de cada CID evidenciaram que para 3 CID os sistemas responderam com um ganho cumulativo de massa de 17,5% (PVG/3SnO2), 4,3% (PVG/3CeO2) e 2,5% (PVG/3TiO2) com a concentração inicial dos precursores de partida de 0,75 molL. O efeito de confinamento quântico foi descrito pelo Modelo da Aproximação da Massa Efetiva (MAME), observado experimentalmente na borda de absorção dos espectros de refletância difusa, DRS, e pelo Modelo de Confinamento de Fônons (MCF), no deslocamento dos modos vibracionais nos espectros Raman. O tamanho de cristalito para a amostra PVG/3TiO2 por TEM e Raman/MCF foi de 4,7 e 4,9 nm, respectivamente, mostrando boa aproximação. O sistema PVG/xTiO2 apresentou variações sistemáticas (blue shift) da energia da banda proibida (Eg*) do TiO2 (óxido de titânio anatásio) nos espectros DRS, evidenciando que Eg* é uma função direta do tamanho de partícula (Eg* = f(2r)) e da metodologia CID. O raio de Bohr, aB, descrito na literatura para a aplicabilidade do MAME ao sistema PVG/xTiO2 não reproduziu a função Eg* = f(2r) de acordo com os resultados TEM. A Partir dos espectros Raman e DRS e os dados teóricos MCF, realizou-se a determinação empírica do aB de 6,4 nm para os cristalitos de TiO2 impregnados no PVG, constituindo nova metodologia para determinação do tamanho de cristalito das amostras PVG/xTiO2. A aplicabilidade do MAME ao sistema PVG/xCeO2 não ofereceu sucesso, pois os cristalitos de CeO2 sofrem acoplamento elétrons-fônons sofrendo um red shift da borda de absorção do espectro DRS. A média de tamanho de cristalito obtida por TEM e estimado por espectroscopia Raman e associado ao MCF está em torno de 5,0 nm para amostras de PVG/5CeO2 0,75-1,0 molL do precursor Ce(hex)3. Os resultados obtidos por DRS para o sistema PVG/xSnO2 demonstraram que o efeito de confinamento quântico ocorre apenas para precursores de concentração abaixo de 0,25 molL. A média de tamanho encontrado para as imagens TEM das amostras PVG/1SnO2 0,10 molL e PVG/1SnO2 0,25 molL é de 3,5 e 5,8 nm e a associação DRS/MAME 3,8 e 4,6 nm, respectivamente. Sobre a obtenção das NCC, as amostras PVG/xTiO2@yCeO2 e PVG/xCeO2@TiO2 (x = 3, 5 e 7 e y = 3, 5 e 7) demonstraram mudança da inclinação da reta de ganho de massa cumulativo após a alternância dos precursores Ti(OnPr)2(hex)2 e Ce(hex)3 A partir das estimativas das Eg* para as amostras PVG/3TiO2@xCeO2 (x = 1, 2 e 3) comparadas com as amostras PVG@xCeO2, relacionou-se tais energias com a formação das NCC. A NCC PVG/3TiO2@3CeO2, 0,75 molL apresentou tamanho de cristalito de 6,9 nm, constituindo um caroço de TiO2 de até 4,7 nm (Raman/MCF, TEM e DRS/MAME) e uma casca de CeO2 inseridos pelos 3 CID do precursor de cério (PVG/3CeO2 constitui 4,1 nm pelo MCF) nucleando sobre o caroço PVG/3TiO2 corroborando com os dados descritos pelo ganho de massa cumulativo com a mudança da inclinação da reta. Observou-se que o sistema PVG/5CeO2@3TiO2 constituiu uma borda de absorção em torno 3,23 eV, sendo uma evidência qualitativa do recobrimento e a formação de NCC PVG/5CeO2@3TiO2, pois, se as nanopartículas PVG/5CeO2 não estivessem sido encapadas ver-se-ia uma borda de absorção correspondendo a PVG/5CeO2 em torno de 3,17 eV. O sistema PVG/xCeO2@yTiO2 (x = 3, 5 e 7 e y = 3, 5 e 7) foi estudado por espectroscopia Raman. Os resultados mostraram deslocamentos sistemáticos do modo vibracional Eg do TiO2 dependentes da espessura da casca e a estabilização da banda T2g do CeO2 no caroço. Espectros Raman do sistema PVG/xTiO2@yCeO2 (x = 3, 5 e 7 e y = 3, 5 e 7) demonstraram a formação de bandas muitos deslocadas, quando o CeO2 se encontra na casca / Abstract: This work reports the development of a synthesis and characterization methodology for isolated nanoparticles and core-shell heterostructures nanoparticles (CSN), involving the semiconducting oxides (TiO2, CeO2 and SnO2) impregnated into a functional porous support (porous Vycor glass - PVG). The alternated impregnation¿decomposition cycle (ICD) methodology was applied from metallo-organic precursors by the used metalloorganic decomposition (MOD) technique. The ICD methodology used Ti (IV) di-(n-propoxy)-di-(2-ethylhexanoate) [Ti(OnPr)2(hex)2],.Ce(III) 2- ethylhexanoate [Ce(hex)3] and Sn(II) 2-ethylhexanoate [Sn(hex)2] impregnation into PVG in controlled conditions. The studies of the cumulative mass gain curves as functions of each ICD evidenced that, for 3 ICD, the systems had cumulative mass gains of 17.5% (PVG/3SnO2), 4.3% (PVG/3CeO2) e 2.5% (PVG/3TiO2) with initial precursor concentrations of 0.75 mol L. The quantum size effect was described by the effective mass approximation model (EMAM), observed experimentally in the absorption edge of the diffuse reflectance spectra (DRS), and by the phonon confinement model (PCM), in the vibrational modes of the Raman shift. The PVG/3TiO2 sample crystallite size was determined by TEM and Raman/PCM to be 4.7 and 4.9 nm, respectively, showing a good approach. The PVG/xTiO2 system showed systematic blue shift variations in the band gap energies (Eg*) in DRS spectra, showing that Eg* is a particle size function (Eg* = f(2r)) and ICD methodology. The Bohr radius (aB), described in literature for the EMAM application, did not describe the Eg* = f(2r) function for the PVG/xTiO2 system, in concordance with TEM data. From Raman and DRS spectra associated with PCM data, followed by the empirical aB determination for TiO2 (anatase titanium oxide) crystallites impregnated in PVG found to be 6.4 nm, constituting important methodology for crystallite size determination in PVG/xTiO2 samples. The EMAM on the PVG/xCeO2 system was not successful, the CeO2 crystallites suffers a red-shift in the DRS absorption edge as a result of effects arising from electron¿phonon coupling. The average crystallite size from TEM data and estimated by Raman spectroscopy associated with PCM are found to be around 5.0 nm for PVG/5CeO2 (0.75-1.0 mol L precursor concentration) samples. The DRS results for the PVG/xSnO2 system demonstrates that the quantum size effects occurs only below 0.25 molL precursors concentrations. The PVG/1SnO2 0.10 mol L and PVG/1SnO2 0.25 mol L average size found from TEM images were 3.5 and 5.8 nm, respectively, and the DRS/EMAM showed 3.8 and 4.6 nm, respectively. The PVG/xTiO2@yCeO2 and PVG/xCeO2@TiO2 (x = 3, 5 e 7 and y = 3, 5 e 7) CSN samples demonstrated an inclination change of the cumulative mass gain line with the Ti(OnPr)2(hex)2 and Ce(hex)3 precursor alternation. From the estimated Eg* for the PVG/3TiO2@xCeO2 (x = 1, 2 e 3) samples compared with PVG@xCeO2 samples, it was possible to relate the energies with the CSN formation. The PVG/3TiO2@3CeO2, 0.75 mol L CSN present a particles size of 6.9 nm, constituting a TiO2 core around 4.7 nm (Raman/PCM, TEM and DRS/EMAM) and a CeO2 shell insert from 3 ICD from cerium precursor (PVG/3CeO2 presents 4.12 nm by PCM). The data suggest that the CeO2 shell nucleated around the PVG/3TiO2 core, corroborating with the inclination change of the cumulative mass gain line. It was observed that the PVG/5CeO2@3TiO2 system presents an absorption edge around 3.23 eV. This shows qualitative evidence about the PVG/5CeO2@3TiO2 CSN formation. Therefore, if the PVG/5CeO2 core is not covered, it will show an absorption edge around 3.17 eV. The PVG/xCeO2@yTiO2 (x = 3, 5 e 7 e y = 3, 5 e 7) system was studied by Raman spectroscopy. The results showed systematic shifts in TiO2 A Eg band dependent for the TiO2 shell thickness and the CeO2 T2g band stabilization related to the CeO2 covered in the core. Raman spectra on the PVG/xTiO2@yCeO2 (x = 3, 5 e 7 e y = 3, 5 e 7) system showed a big band shift when CeO2 was in the shell / Mestrado / Quimica Inorganica / Mestre em Química

Orientador: Maria José Santos Pompeu Brasil / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Física Gleb Wataghin / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-25T21:17:06Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 GonzalezBalanta_MiguelAngel_D.pdf: 5068966 bytes, checksum: c4aafc0a3e660efae9cc987f6dd987e5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Resumo: Neste trabalho investigamos a interação entre portadores confinados em poços quânticos de InGaAs/GaAs e íons de Mn de uma dopagem tipo delta na barreira do poço. Utilizamos como base para este estudo dois tipos de estruturas. O primeiro tipo tem apenas a dopagem tipo delta de Mn e o segundo tipo, inclui duas camadas de dopagem tipo delta nas duas barreiras do poço, sendo uma dopagem de C e a outra de Mn. Observamos que a assimetria das estruturas devido às dopagens se reflete na interação dos portadores confinados com os íons de Mn. Os resultados indicam que esta interação se torna relativamente mais forte no conjunto de amostras com dopagem assimétrica apenas de Mn. Em nossa investigação, utilizamos diversas técnicas ópticas como fotoluminescência, fotoluminescência de excitação e fotoluminescência resolvida no tempo, incluindo análises da polarização da luz emitida e efeitos de campo magnético. Apesar da separação espacial entre os íons de Mn e os portadores confinados no poço, observamos vários efeitos que associamos a interação entre estas entidades. Observamos uma significativa amplificação da intensidade da força de oscilador de transições proibidas do poço em estruturas dopadas apenas com Mn. Este efeito foi interpretado como uma possível indicação da formação de polarons magnéticos ligados. Nas medidas com campo magnético, vimos que o grau de polarização dos portadores apresenta uma componente associada à presença dos íons de Mn. Esta componente, dominante apenas a baixos campos magnéticos, segue uma função tipo Brillouin associada a sistemas ferromagnéticos. Dependendo do perfil da estrutura, esta componente pode ter seu sinal invertido, levando a uma dependência da polarização com o campo magnético anômala. Finalmente, realizamos um estudo detalhado da dinâmica de polarização dos portadores com medidas de fotoluminescência resolvida no tempo. Desenvolvemos uma técnica especial envolvendo dois feixes de laser pulsados com controle tanto da separação temporal entre seus pulsos, quanto das suas polarizações circulares, que podiam ser iguais ou invertidas. Observamos que o grau de polarização gerado por um pulso é alterado se logo antes dele (centenas de pico-segundos), a amostra é excitada com pulso com polarização invertida. Associamos este efeito a um tipo de memória de polarização relacionada com a magnetização óptica dos íons de Mn. Assim, a excitação com luz circularmente polarizada gera portadores com spin preferencial, que atuam sobre os íons magnéticos, e que por sua vez afetam a polarização dos próprios portadores, agindo como um reservatório de polarização devido aos tempos de spin relativamente mais longos dos íons de Mn. Notamos que os efeitos mencionados acima são consideravelmente mais fortes no conjunto de amostras apenas com dopagens de Mn que devem apresentar um perfil de potencial mais assimétrico. Também obtivemos resultados consistentes que demonstram que estes efeitos tendem a diminuir quando a quantidade de Mn na camada delta é reduzida, quando a separação entre a camada delta de Mn e o poço quântico é aumentada, e quando aumentamos a temperatura do sistema. Em especial, os efeitos tendem a desaparecer para temperaturas em torno de 60 K, consistente com os valores da temperatura de Curie obtida para amostras similares / Abstract: In this work we investigated the interaction between confined carriers in of InGaAs/GaAs quantum wells (QWs) and Mn ions from a Mn delta-doping at the barrier of the QW. We have used two types of structures in this study. Samples of the first type have only a Mn delta-doping at the QW barrier, while samples from the second type include an additional C delta-doping layer at the other barrier. We found that the asymmetry of the structures due to doping is reflected in the interaction of carriers confined in the well and the Mn ions. The results indicate that this interaction becomes relatively stronger in the set of samples with asymmetrical doping of Mn solely. In our research, we have performed continuous-wave photoluminescence (CW-PL), excitation photoluminescence (CW-PLE), time-resolved photoluminescence (TR-PL), including analysis of the polarization of the emitted light and effects of a magnetic field. Despite the spatial separation between the Mn ions and the carriers confined in the QW, we observed various effects attributed to the interaction between these entities. We observed a significant enhancement of the intensity of the oscillator strength from transitions that are prohibited for symmetric QWs for the Mn doped structures. This effect was interpreted as a possible indication of the formation of bound magnetic polarons (BMP). In the measurements under a magnetic field, we observed that the degree of polarization of the carrier has a component associated with the presence of Mn ions. This component dominates the polarization under small magnetic fields and follows a like-Brillouin function associated to ferromagnetic systems. Depending on the profile of the structure, this component may have its sign reversed, leading to an anomalous polarization dependency with magnetic field. Finally, we performed a detailed study of the dynamics of the polarization of the carriers with time-resolved photoluminescence. We have developed a special technique involving two pulsed beams with a variable time-delay and individually-controlled circular-polarizations, which could be equal or reversed. We observed that the degree of polarization generated by a pulse is changed if just before it (hundreds of pico seconds) the sample was excited with a pulse with reversed polarization. We associated this effect to a kind of polarization memory related to the optical magnetization of Mn ions. Therefore, the excitation with circularly-polarized light generates carriers with a preferential spin that might act on the magnetic ions. In turn, the polarized Mn ions must affect the spin-polarization of the carriers, acting as a reservoir of the polarization, due to the relatively longer spin times of the Mn ions. We noticed that all these effects are considerably stronger for the set of samples doped only with Mn, that should present a more asymmetric potential profile. We also obtained consistent results revealing that all these effects tend to decrease when the amount of Mn in the delta-layer is reduced, when the separation between the Mn layer and the QW is increased, and when we increase the temperature of the sample. In particular, the effects tend to disappear at temperatures around 60 K, in accordance with the Curie temperature found for similar samples / Doutorado / Física / Doutor em Ciências

Orientador: Newton Cesário Frateschi / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Física Gleb Wataghin / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-17T02:03:42Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Mialichi_JoseRoberto_D.pdf: 4426656 bytes, checksum: f54944bc3408b22608afdd373e3445dd (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: Esta tese de doutorado apresenta resultados experimentais do crescimento de pontos quânticos de InAs diretamente sobre InGaAsP de baixa energia de bandgap (?g=1420 nm), cujo desenvolvimento visa a obtenção de um meio ativo com emissão na banda C (1520¿1570 nm) para a fabricação de ressonadores de microdisco. Baseado em resultados de fotoluminescência e microscopia de força atômica, o fenômeno da inter-difusão de elementos na interface InAs/InGaAsP é proposto e calculado, indicando a presença de Gálio e Fósforo na composição dos pontos quânticos. O ganho óptico de pontos quânticos de InAs crescidos sobre InGaAsP é também calculado com base nos resultados obtidos na análise de inter-difusão. Subseqüentemente, a teoria dos modos ressonantes no microdisco, particularmente os modos chamados whispering gallery modes (WGMs), é desenvolvida com o intuito de auxiliar os cálculos de fator de qualidade, fator de confinamento e corrente de limiar. Uma estrutura multicamada (diodo PIN) com região ativa baseada em pontos quânticos do sistema InAs/InGaAsP foi crescida por epitaxia de feixe químico (CBE) para a fabricação de ressonadores de microdisco. A fabricação dos microdiscos é feita por litografia óptica, corrosão por plasma de íons e ataque químico seletivo de InP. Feixe de íons focalizados (FIB) foi usado para substituir o ataque por plasma para diminuir a rugosidade das paredes dos discos. Os ressonadores de microdiscos são caracterizados elétrica e opticamente e os resultados são confrontados com base nos resultados teóricos apresentados ao longo da tese. Com base nos resultados das caracterizações eletro/ópticas dos ressonadores, correções como a inclusão de perdas ópticas da rugosidade da borda e aquecimento local foram acrescidas ao modelo teórico, resultando em boa concordância com os resultados experimentais. Por fim, apresentamos o desenvolvimento de dispositivos híbridos a partir de polímeros orgânicos depositados diretamente sobre microdiscos de InGaAs com o objetivo de integrar meio ativo orgânico com ressonadores inorgânicos para aplicações em optoeletrônica. Estes resultados foram obtidos durante o programa de doutorado com estágio no exterior no Laboratório Nacional de Nanotecnologia (NNL) vinculado à Università del Salento (Lecce/Itália) / Abstract:This doctorate¿s thesis presents the growth of InAs quantum dots directly on high bandgap InGaAsP (?g=1420 nm) barriers to be used as the active region of microdisk resonators with emission in the C-band (1520¿1570 nm). Based on photoluminescence and atomic force microscopy experiments, the occurrence of inter-diffusion on the InAs/InGaAsP interface is calculated, suggesting the presence of Gallium and Phosphorus in the quantum dots (QDs) composition. Based also on the inter-diffusion results, the optical gain of the InAs QDs is calculated. Subsequently, microdisk resonator whispering gallery modes (WGMs) are calculated and employed to predicting the cavity quality and confinement factors, as well as the threshold current. A PIN diode with an active region based on InAs QDs was grown by Chemical Beam Epitaxy (CBE) for the fabrication of current injected microdisk resonators. Microdisk fabrication process is performed using photolithography, reactive ion etching and InP selective wet-etching. Focused ion beam is used to replace the plasma etching in order to reduce the roughness of the disk¿s edge. Microdisks resonators are characterized electrically and optically and the measurements are analyzed based on the theoretical results presented along this thesis. Based on these measurements, optical losses caused by disk¿s edge roughness and local heating are added to our simulation tool, resulting in better agreement with the experimental results. Finally, we present the development of hybrid resonators using organic polymer deposited directly on inorganic microdisks integrating an organic active medium with inorganic resonators for optoelectronic applications. These results were obtained during our work at the National Nanotechnology Laboratory (NNL) and the University of Salento (Lecce/Italy) / Doutorado / Física da Matéria Condensada / Doutor em Física

L'architecture des cellules solaires multi-jonction permet d'obtenir des records de rendement de conversion photovoltaïque, pouvant aller jusqu'à 46%. Leurs sous-cellules sont chacune conçues pour absorber une partie bien définie et complémentaire du spectre solaire, et sont connectées en série par des jonctions tunnel. La fabrication de cellules solaires tandem InGaP/GaAs d'énergies de bande interdite (" band gap ") 1,87 eV/1,42 eV accordées en maille sur substrat GaAs est bien maîtrisée, et de très hauts rendements peuvent être obtenus en ajoutant une ou deux sous-cellules de plus petit " gap " (1 eV et 0,7eV). Pour cela, les matériaux " petits gaps " fabriqués par Epitaxie par Jets Moléculaires (EJM) doivent être développés ainsi que des jonctions tunnel présentant une faible résistivité électrique, une haute transparence optique et de bonnes propriétés structurales. La croissance EJM et la modélisation de jonctions tunnel GaAs nous a permis d'identifier le mécanisme d'effet tunnel interbande plutôt que le mécanisme d'effet tunnel assisté par les défauts comme mécanisme dominant du transport dans ces structures. Nous avons exploité l'hétérostructure de type II fondée sur le système GaAsSb/InGaAs pour favoriser ce mécanisme d'effet tunnel interbande, et donc obtenir des jonctions tunnel de très faible résistivité tout en limitant la dégradation des propriétés optiques et structurales des composants inhérente à l'utilisation de matériaux " petits gaps " et désaccordés en maille GaAsSb et InGaAs. De plus, nous avons conçu une structure innovante d'hétérojonction tunnel de type II AlGaInAs/AlGaAsSb sous la forme de tampon graduel pour l'incorporation d'une sous-cellule métamorphique à 1 eV. Plusieurs candidats pour le matériau absorbeur à 1 eV à base de nitrure dilué InGaAsN(Bi) ont alors été développés et caractérisés, le contrôle de l'accord de maille étant assuré par un suivi en temps réel de la courbure de l'échantillon pendant la croissance EJM. Des premières cellules solaires III-V à base de GaAs, de nitrure dilué à 1 eV et de GaInAs métamorphique ont été fabriquées afin de valider les architectures développées de jonctions tunnel. Ce travail a permis de démontrer le potentiel de l'hétérostructure de type II GaAsSb/InGaAs pour répondre aux principaux défis de conception et de fabrication des cellules solaires multi-jonction sur substrat GaAs, que ce soit au niveau de la jonction tunnel ou au niveau de l'incorporation des sous-cellules de gap 1 eV. / Multi-Jonction Solar Cells (MJSCs) are leading the way of high efficiency photovoltaic devices, with conversion efficiency up to 46%. Their subcells are designed to absorb in a specific and complementary range of the solar spectrum, and are connected in series with tunnel junctions. The tandem architecture InGaP/GaAs - with bandgaps of 1.87 eV and 1.42 eV respectively - is mature and its efficiency could be enhanced by incorporating subcell(s) with bandgaps of 1 eV and/or 0.7 eV. The Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) growth of such low bandgap materials has thus to be developed, as well as low-resistive tunnel junctions with good structural and optical properties. Based on the MBE growth and the simulation of GaAs tunnel junctions, we have identified interband tunneling as the predominant transport mechanism in such devices rather than trap-assisted-tunneling. The interband tunneling mechanism could be enhanced with the type II GaAsSb/InGaAs heterostructure. Using this material system, we have then demonstrated tunnel junctions with very low electrical resistivity with a limited degradation of the optical and structural properties inherently induced by the use of low band-gap and lattice-mismatched GaAsSb and InGaAs materials. Moreover, we fabricated an innovative AlInGaAs/AlGaAsSb tunnel junction as a graded buffer architecture that could be used for the incorporation of a 1 eV metamorphic subcell. We then developed and characterized InGaAsN(Bi) materials with band-gaps of ~1eV, taking advantage of in-situ wafer curvature measurements during the MBE growth to control the lattice-mismatch. Preliminary solar cells based on GaAs, 1 eV dilute nitride and metamorphic InGaAs have been fabricated and characterized validating the developed tunnel junction architectures. This work has enabled to demonstrate the potential of the type II GaAsSb/InGaAs heterostructure to meet the challenges posed by the conception and the fabrication of GaAs-based MJSCs, both for the tunnel junction and the 1 eV subcell.

Group III-nitride semiconductors are well suited for the fabrication of devices including visible-ultraviolet light emitting diodes, high-temperature and high-frequency devices. The wurtzite III-nitride based heterostructures grown along polar c-direction have large internal electric fields due to discontinuities in spontaneous and piezoelectric polarizations. For optoelectronic devices, such as light-emitting diodes and laser diodes, the internal electric field is deleterious as it causes a spatial separation of electron and hole wave functions in the quantum wells, which decreases emission efficiency. Growth of GaN-based heterostructures in alternative orientations, which have reduced (semipolar) or no polarization (nonpolar) in the growth direction, has been a major area of research in the last few years. The correlation between structural, optical and transport properties of semipolar and nonpolar III-nitride would be extremely useful. The thesis focuses on the growth and characterizations of semipolar and nonpolar III-nitride heterostructures by plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy. Chapter 1 provides a brief introduction to the III-nitride semiconductors. The importance of semipolar and nonpolar III-nitride heterostructures over conventional polar heterostructures has been discussed. Chapter 2 deals with the descriptions of molecular beam epitaxy system and working principles of different characterization tools used in the present work. Chapter 3 addresses the molecular beam epitaxial growth of nonpolar (1 1 -2 0) and semipolar (1 1 -2 2) GaN on sapphire substrates. An in-plane orientation relationship is found to be [0 0 0 1] GaN || [-1 1 0 1] sapphire and [-1 1 0 0] GaN || [1 1 -2 0] sapphire for nonpolar GaN on r-sapphire substrates. Effect of growth temperature on structural, morphological and optical properties of nonpolar GaN has been studied. The growth temperature plays a major role in controlling crystal quality, morphology and emission properties of nonpolar a-plane GaN. The a-plane GaN shows crystalline anisotropy nature and it has reduced with increase in the growth temperature. The surface roughness was found to decrease with increase in growth temperature and film grown at 760°C shows reasonably smooth surface with roughness 3.05 nm. Room temperature photoluminescence spectra show near band emission peak at 3.434 -3.442 eV. The film grown at 800 ºC shows broad yellow luminescence peak at 2.2 eV. Low temperature photoluminescence spectra show near band emission at 3.483 eV along with defect related emissions. Raman spectra exhibit blue shift due to compressive strain in the film. An in-plane orientation relationship is found to be [1 -1 00] GaN || [1 2-1 0] sapphire and [-1 -1 2 3] GaN || [0 0 0 1] sapphire for semipolar GaN on m-plane sapphire substrates. The surface morphology of semipolar GaN film is found to be reasonably smooth with pits on the surface. Room temperature photoluminescence shows the near band emission (NBE) at 3.432 eV, which is slightly blue shifted compared to the bulk GaN. The Raman E2 (high) peak position observed at 569.1 cm1. Chapter 4 deals with the fabrication and characterizations of Au/nonpolar and Au/semipolar GaN schottky diodes. The temperature-dependent current–voltage measurements have been used to determine the current mechanisms in Schottky diodes fabricated on nonpolar a-plane GaN and semipolar GaN epilayers. The barrier height (φb) and ideally factor (η) estimated from the thermionic emission model are found to be temperature dependent in nature indicate the deviations from the thermionic emission (TE) transport mechanism. Low temperature I-V characteristics of Au/ GaN Schottky diode show temperature independent tunnelling parameter. Barrier heights calculated from XPS are found to be 0.96 eV and 1.13 eV for Au/nonpolar GaN and Au/semipolar GaN respectively. Chapter 5 demonstrates the growth of InN on r-sapphire substrates with and without GaN buffer layer. InN film and nanostructures are grown on r-sapphire without GaN buffer layer and they are highly oriented along (0002) direction. The electron microscopy study confirms the nanostructures are vertically aligned and highly oriented along the (0001) direction. The Raman studies of InN nanostructures show the SO modes along with the other possible Raman modes. The band gap of InN nanostructures is found to be 0.82 eV. InN grown with a-plane GaN buffer shows nonpolar orientated growth. Growth temperature dependent studies of nonpolar a-plane InN epilayers are carried out. The valence band offset value is calculated to be 1.31 eV for nonpolar a-plane InN/GaN heterojunctions. The heterojunctions form in the type-I straddling configuration with a conduction band offsets of 1.41 eV. Chapter 6 deals with the temperature dependent I-V characteristics of the nonpolar a-plane (1 1 -2 0) InN/GaN heterostructures. The measured values of barrier height and ideality factor from the TE model show the temperature dependent variation. The double Gaussian distribution has mean barrier height values ( ϕb ) of 1.17 and 0.69 eV with standard deviation (σs ) of 0.17 and 0.098 V, respectively. The modified Richardson plot ln (Is/T2)-q2σ2/2k2T2 ) versus q/kT in the temperature range of 350 – 500 K, yielded the Richardson constant of 19.5 A/cm2 K2 which is very close to the theoretical value of 24 A/cm2 K2 for n-type GaN. The tunneling parameters E0 found to be temperature independent at low temperature range (150 –300 K). Chapter 7 concludes with the summary of present investigations and the scope for future work.