Adaptation is a fundamental property of the nervous system that underlies the maintenance of successful actions through flexible reconfiguration of sensorimotor processing. The primary aims of this thesis are 1) to investigate the computational and neural underpinnings of sensorimotor memory formation during prism adaptation (PA) in humans, and 2) how they interact with anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (a-tDCS) of the primary motor cortex (M1), in order to 3) improve efficacy of prism therapy for post-stroke spatial neglect. In chapter 4, we modify an influential state-space model of adaptation in order to characterize the contribution of short and long memory timescales to motor behaviour as sensorimotor after-effects (AEs) develop during PA. This enables us, in the multimodal 7 Tesla MRI experiment reported in chapter 5, to demonstrate that the level of M1 excitation:inhibition causally sets the relative contribution of long versus short memory timescales during PA, thus determining behavioural persistence of the AE at retention in young healthy adults. This finding offers a bridge between different levels of investigation by providing a biologically plausible neuro-computational model of how sensorimotor memories are formed and enhanced by a-tDCS. In chapter 6, we use the ageing motor system as a model of reduced GABAergic inhibition and show that the age-related decrease in M1 GABA explains why older adults demonstrate more persistent prism AEs. Taken together, these data indicate that the reduction in M1 GABAergic inhibition via excitatory a-tDCS during PA has the potential to enhance persistence of adaptation memory in both young and older adults. Informed by these results, we subsequently ask whether standard (multi-session) PA therapy combined with left M1 a-tDCS translates to greater and/or longer-lasting clinical improvements in post-stroke spatial neglect patients. In chapter 7, we compare the multimodal neuroimaging data of six neglect patients to normative data of age-matched controls. We show that in all patients, the lesion interrupted long-range frontoparietal connections, and we provide direct evidence for a pathological left dominance of activity within the lateral occipital cortex during deployment of bilateral visuospatial attention. In chapter 8, we present the behavioural performance of these patients throughout the two phases of the clinical study (i.e. before and after either PA + real M1 a-tDCS or PA + sham M1 atDCS). There was no clear effect of a-tDCS on the therapeutic effect of PA in these patients. The results of the studies presented in this thesis provide a novel insight into the neurocomputational mechanisms of sensorimotor memory formation and its modulation by a-tDCS in the healthy brain. Further investigation of how these mechanisms relate to therapeutic improvements following PA in certain neglect patients is needed.

<p>Tool use is an important area of research in psychology, neurophysiology, and motor behavior because it provides insights into the organization of perception, cognition, and action. Tool use research has traditionally focused on the neural structures or cognitive processes that contribute to body-tool integration, while there has been comparatively little interest in motor control. When tool use actions are studied, adaptations have mainly been examined at the level of manual control, while postural control and multi-segment coordination have received less attention. Examining these components of behavior in the context of tool use is vital for developing a better understanding of how humans integrate tools into goal-directed actions.</p><p>The goals of this dissertation were to 1) characterize adaptations to postural control over time when performing a manual task with a tool under different levels of postural constraint and determine their relation to manual task performance, 2) examine postural-manual coupling under different levels of postural constraint during tool use, and 3) determine how multi-segment coordination supports postural stability and suprapostural task performance under different levels of postural constraint during tool use. To address these questions, we adopted a sensorimotor adaptation paradigm to examine postural-manual control and multi-segment coordination before, during, and after an extended bout of tool use.</p>Tool-use adaptations were found to extend beyond the end-effector. Postural control played a crucial role in facilitating improvements in the manual control of tools. Placing constraints on posture interfered with these adaptations, disrupting the coordination of postural-manual behaviors during tool use. However, multi-segment coordination was modified to overcome this challenge and facilitate postural stability and manual performance. These results demonstrate that healthy young adults are capable of flexibly recruiting and exploiting available degrees of freedom in a task-dependent manner the potential challenges associated with integrating tools into movements. This dissertation provides preliminary support for the importance of considering postural control in tool use actions and highlights the utility of examining interactions across multiple levels of motor behavior—postural control, manual control, postural-manual coupling, and multi-segment coordination—to elucidate how tools are integrated into complex, goal-directed behaviors.

À ce jour, le rôle des oscillations bêta n’a pas encore été clairement établi. Des travaux récents ont montré que l’activité bêta pendant la préparation du mouvement et celle suivant son exécution sont différemment modulées par les erreurs de mouvements. L’objectif du présent travail a été double : premièrement, déterminer si les modulations de puissance bêta pré- et post-mouvement recrutent des substrats cérébraux différents, deuxièmement, mieux cerner la nature des processus neuronaux reflétés. Grâce à une approche par analyse en composantes indépendantes, nous suggérons fortement que les réponses oscillatoires, aux erreurs cinématiques, observées avant et après le mouvement sont sous-tendues par des structures distinctes, respectivement clairement latéralisées et médiales. De plus, en contrastant différentes tâches motrices, nous montrons que ni l’une ni l’autre des deux activités bêta ne reflètent des mécanismes en lien direct avec les sorties motrices. / The role of beta oscillations has not been clearly established yet. Recent work has shown that the beta activities observed during the preparation phase and after the movement are differently affected by movement errors. The aim of this thesis was twofold: first, to determine whether or not the pre- and post-movement beta power modulations recruit common neural substrates; second, to better understand the nature of the reflected neural processes. Using an independent component analysis approach, we strongly suggest that oscillatory responses to kinematic errors, observed before and after movement, are underpinned by distinct neural structures, respectively clearly lateralized and medial. Moreover, by contrasting different motor tasks, we show that neither of the two beta activities reflects mechanisms directly related to the output of the motor command.

Chez l’humain, les corrélats EEG du système de supervision de l’action ont largement été explorés dans le cadre de travaux sur la prise de décision, mettant en évidence plusieurs potentiels évoqués caractéristiques du traitement des erreurs de sélection de l'action. Typiquement, les tâches employées impliquent des réponses motrices élémentaires et l’évaluation des performances est de nature catégorielle. En contraste, l'EEG n'a que rarement été associée à des tâches motrices plus complexes, dans lesquelles les erreurs d'exécution du mouvement correspondent à des événements spatio-temporels variant en amplitude de manière continue. Pour explorer les corrélats EEG du traitement des erreurs d’exécution du mouvement nous avons enregistré l'activité cérébrale de participants engagés dans des tâches d'adaptation visuomotrice impliquant des perturbations mécaniques ou visuelles.Dans une première étude, nous avons identifié une négativité fronto-centrale sensible à la taille des erreurs cinématiques. Sa forte similitude avec la négativité liée au feedback (FRN), classiquement associée aux erreurs de prédiction de la récompense (EPR) suggère que le traitement des erreurs de prédiction sensorielles recrute des processus neuronaux communs à celui des EPR. Dans une seconde étude, nous avons exploré la sensibilité de l'activité oscillatoire β aux erreurs cinématiques. Nous avons ainsi mis en évidence deux patrons de modulation distincts. Alors que la modulation du rebond β post-mouvement serait liée à la saillance des erreurs cinématiques indépendamment de l’adaptation sensorimotrice, la modulation de la puissance β pré-mouvement semble être le reflet de mécanismes adaptatifs. / In humans, EEG correlates of performance monitoring have been extensively investigated in relation to decision-making theories. Event-related potentials correlates of error processing have been well documented using choice reaction-time tasks in which very simple motor responses are required. In these tasks, errors concern inappropriate action selection only and the evaluation of the performance is discrete (e.g. failure or success). In contrast, EEG activity has been much less examined in more complex motor tasks in which inaccurate movement-execution produces errors that vary continuously in magnitude. Our goal was to explore EEG correlates of movement-error processing and sensorimotor adaptation. In this purpose, we recorded EEG while volunteers performed reaching movements under mechanically or visually perturbed conditions. In a first study, we identified a fronto-central negativity whose amplitude was modulated by the size of movement errors. This potential presents great similarities with the Feedback Related Negativity (FRN), a potential often assumed to reflect reward-prediction errors (RPE). These findings suggest that the processing of movement-execution errors, corresponding to sensory-prediction errors, and the processing of RPE involve a shared neural network. In a second study we assessed β-power sensitivity to errors and found two clearly distinct patterns of β-band modulation. Our results suggest that the postmovement β-power may reflect error-salience processing independent of sensorimotor adaptation whereas modulations in the foreperiod may directly relate to the motor-command adjustments activated after movement-execution errors are experienced.

L’adaptation motrice renvoie à la capacité de notre système nerveux à produire continuellement des mouvements précis et ce malgré le fait que notre environnement ainsi que notre corps puissent être soumis à des modifications. Le transfert d’adaptation entre les membres découle de notre habilité à généraliser ce que l’on a appris, par exemple, avec un bras au bras opposé. Le transfert entre les membres est un objet d’étude complexe. Les conditions amenant au transfert sont largement débattues dans la littérature car les résultats d’une étude à l’autre peuvent être contradictoires. Ce travail de thèse s’inscrit dans une tentative d’apporter une explication concernant l’hétérogénéité des performances et les divergences observées dans les différentes études portant sur le transfert entre les membres. Les deux premières expériences avaient pour but d’identifier si des conditions paradigmatiques ou idiosyncratiques pouvaient influencer les performances du transfert au bras opposé. L’objectif de la troisième expérience était d’étudier l’influence des processus sous-jacents à l’adaptation sur le transfert entre les membres d’après le modèle de Smith et collaborateurs (2006). Nos résultats nous ont permis d’éclaircir certains aspects du transfert concernant les facteurs prédictifs et les processus mis en jeu. Nos deux premières études suggèrent que les différences individuelles sont une source d’information pertinente pour expliquer certains comportements tels que le transfert entre les membres. Notre troisième étude nous a permis de caractériser les processus qui, durant l’adaptation, prédisposent au transfert. / Motor adaptation refers to the capacity of our nervous system to produce accurate movements while the properties of our body and our environment continuously change. Interlimb transfer is a process that directly stems from motor adaptation. It occurs when knowledge gained through training with one arm change the performance of the opposite arm movements. Interlimb transfer of adaptation is an intricate process. Numerous studies have investigated the patterns of transfer and conflicted results have been found. The attempt of my PhD project was to identify which factors and processes favor interlimb transfer of adaptation and thence may explain the discrepancies found in the literature. The first two experiments aimed at investigated whether paradigmatic or idiosyncratic features would influence the performance in interlimb transfer. The third experiment provided some insights on the processes allowing interlimb transfer by using the dual-rate model of adaptation put forth by Smith et al. (2006). Our results show that inter-individual differences may be a key factor to consider when studying interlimb transfer of adaptation. Also, the study of the different sub-processes of adaptation seems helpful to understand how interlimb transfer works and how it can be related to other behaviors such as the expression of motor memory.