Sepsis remains a severe issue in critically ill patients. Adjunctive therapies might play important role to decrease morbidity and mortality. The aim of this thesis is to investigate new adjunctive therapies role in the treatment of sepsis and septic shock. / Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Diss. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Karol. inst., 2006. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

published_or_final_version / Physiology / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

published_or_final_version / abstract / Physiology / Master / Master of Philosophy

The intensive care unit treats the most critically ill patients in the hospital, and as such the clinical staff in the intensive care unit have to deal with complex, time-sensitive and life-critical situations. Commonly, patients present with multiple organ dysfunctions, require breathing and cardiovascular support, which make diagnosis and treatment even more challenging. As a result, clinical staff are faced with processing large quantities of often confusing information, and have to rely on experience and trial and error. This occurs despite the wealth of cardiovascular metrics that are available to the clinician. Computer models of the cardiovascular system can help enormously in an intensive care setting, as they can take the monitored data, and aggregate it in such a way as to present a clear and understandable picture of the cardiovascular system. With additional help that such systems can provide, diagnosis can be more accurate and arrived at faster, alone with better optimised treatment that can start sooner, all of which results in decreased mortality, length of stay and cost. This thesis presents a model of the cardiovascular system, which mimics a specific patient’s cardiovascular state, based on only metrics that are commonly measured in an intensive care setting. This intentional limitation gives rise to additional complexities and challenges in identifying the model, but do not stand in the way of achieving a model that can represent and track all the important cardiovascular dynamics of a specific patient. One important complication that comes from limiting the data set is need for an estimation for the ventricular time-varying elastance waveform. This waveform is central to the dynamics of the cardiovascular model and is far too invasive to measure in an intensive care setting. This thesis thus goes on to present a method in which the value-normalised ventricular time-varying elastance is estimated from only metrics which are commonly available in an intensive care setting. Both the left and the right ventricular time-varying elastance are estimated with good accuracy, capturing both the shape and timing through the progress of pulmonary embolism and septic shock. For pulmonary embolism, with the algorithm built from septic shock data, a time-varying elastance waveform with median error of 1.26% and 2.52% results for the left and right ventricles respectively. For septic shock, with the algorithm built from pulmonary embolism data, a time-varying elastance waveform with median error of 2.54% and 2.90% results for the left and right ventricles respectively. These results give confidence that the method will generalise to a wider set of cardiovascular dysfunctions. Furthermore, once the ventricular time-varying elastance is known, or estimated to a adequate degree of accuracy, the time-varying elastance can be used in its own right to access valuable information about the state of the cardiovascular system. Due to the centrality and energetic nature of the time-varying elastance waveform, much of the state of the cardiovascular system can be found within the waveform itself. In this manner this thesis presents three important metrics which can help a clinician distinguish between, and track the progress of, the cardiovascular dysfunctions of pulmonary embolism and septic shock, from estimations based of the monitored pressure waveforms. With these three metrics, a clinician can increase or decrease their probabilistic measure of pulmonary embolism and septic shock.

A dexmedetomidina, fármaco da classe dos α2-agonistas, é amplamente empregada no paciente gravemente enfermo por seus efeitos de analgesia e sedação, porém seu comportamento nas situações de sepse e choque séptico é pouco estudado. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar os efeitos hemodinâmicos, metabólicos e inflamatórios da dexmedetomidina em modelo suíno de choque séptico. Foram utilizadas 18 fêmeas suínas (peso médio 23,5 kg), divididos em três grupos. O grupo SHAM foi submetido apenas à anestesia. O grupo CH recebeu infusão intravenosa de E. coli O55 (3x109 ufc/mL) de 0,75 ml/kg durante 1 hora. Os animais do grupo CHDEX receberam a mesma infusão de bactérias vivas, associada à infusão de dexmedetomidina 0,7 μg/kg em 10 minutos seguida de 0,5 μg/kg/h até o fim do experimento. Foi considerado T0 o momento do fim da infusão da bactéria, e os animais foram observados por 240 minutos. Os animais receberam tratamento com fluidoterapia e/ou norepinefrina para manutenção da PVC 8 mmHg e PAM 65 mmHg. O modelo proposto mimetizou as alterações presentes na sepse grave e choque séptico, com colapso circulatório, lesão pulmonar aguda e acidose metabólica. Houve tendência de maior depressão cardiovascular em CHDEX (índice cardíaco em T240: 2,8±0,5 L.min-1.m-2 para CHDEX; 3,6±1,7 L.min-1.m-2 para CH e 4,7±1,1 L.min-1.m-2 para SHAM). Não houve diferença estatística entre os grupos CH e CHDEX, à exceção da SvO2 (62,5±9,0% para CHDEX, 74,2±9,1% para CH em T180), do consumo de oxigênio (149,90±25,62 mL.min-1.m-2 para CHDEX, 111,49±21,59 mL.min-1.m-2 para CH em T0), da taxa de extração de oxigênio (43±20% para CHDEX, 25±11% para CH em T240) e do Pr-Pa (53±14mmHg para CHDEX, 35±11mmHg para CH em T0). A diminuição no IC justifica a diminuição dos parâmetros de oxigenação. Os níveis plasmáticos de TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 e IL-10 aumentaram de forma mais pronunciada em CH, mas não houve diferença estatisticamente significativa com relação a CHDEX. Ambos os grupos não diferiram em relação ao débito urinário e tratamento de ressuscitação empregado. Frente aos resultados obtidos pode-se pressupor que a dexmedetomidina pode desencadear desequilíbrio entre oferta e consumo de oxigênio por afetar diretamente a microcirculação. Sugere-se que o emprego da dexmedetomidina no choque séptico seja alvo de mais estudos e discussões. / The use of dexmedetomidine to achieve sedation, anxiolysis, analgesia and allowance to mechanical ventilation has increased in critical ill patients, but only a few data are available regarding the effects of dexmedetomidine in situations of sepsis and septic shock. The aim of this study was to assess hemodynamic, metabolic and inflammatory effects of dexmedetomidine in a porcine model of septic shock. Eighteen sows with mean weight of 23,5 kg were included in the study, and allocated in three groups. Animals in the SHAM group underwent a standard anesthetic protocol. The CH group, in addition to anesthesia, received an intravenous infusion of live E. coli O55 (3x109 cfu/mL), total volume of 0,75 ml/kg in 1 hour. The CHDEX group underwent the same treatment of the CH group plus 0,7 μg/kg of dexmedetomidine over 10 minutes and a constant rate of infusion of 0,5 μg/kg/h until the end of the experiment. T0 was considered the end of bacteria infusion and animals were monitored during 240 minutes. Fluid therapy and/or norepinephrine infusion were given as needed, aiming to maintain central venous pressure 8 mmHg and mean arterial pressure 65 mmHg. Typical septic shock symptoms were shown in animals receiving bacteria infusion, such as cardiovascular collapse, acute lung injury and metabolic acidosis. It was observed a greater cardiovascular depression in the CHDEX group (T240 cardiac index: 2,8±0,5 L.min-1.m-2 within CHDEX; 3,6±1,7 L.min-1.m-2 within CH e 4,7±1,1 L.min-1.m-2 within SHAM). There was not statistical difference between CH and CHDEX, but concerning SvO2 (62,5±9,0% within CHDEX, 74,2±9,1% within CH: moment T180) oxygen consumption (149,90±25,62 mL.min-1.m-2 within CHDEX, 111,49±21,59 mL.min-1.m-2 within CH: moment T0), oxygen extraction rate (43±20% within CHDEX, 25±11% within CH: moment T240) and Pr-Pa (53±14mmHg within CHDEX, 35±11mmHg within CH: moment T0). Impaired cardiac index justified changes in oxygenation parameters. TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 plasma levels were increased in a more pronounced way in the CH group, although no statistical differences were found when compared with the CHDEX group. Both groups presented similar results concerning urine output, fluid therapy and norepinephrine additional treatments. Dexmedetomidine is likely to cause a mismatch between oxygen delivery and consumption by affecting microcirculation in critical ill patients. Further investigations on the use of dexmedetomidina in septic shock are required.

O uso de fármacos cardiovasculares tem aumentado consideravelmente nos últimos anos, incluindo o uso de beta-bloqueadores como o metoprolol. E embora estudos experimentais e clínicos tenham demonstrado benefícios na utilização desta classe de fármacos em pacientes sépticos, o bloqueio de receptores beta-adrenérgicos continua sendo contraditório, especialmente no choque séptico. Vinte fêmeas suínas nas quais o choque séptico foi induzido através da infusão intravenosa de Escherichia coli (6x109 UFC/kg em duas horas), foram randomicamente distribuídas (n=10 por grupo) em um grupo Metoprolol (GM; 214.2 ?g/kg de metoprol infundido em 45 minutos) ou grupo Controle (GC), o qual recebeu um volume correspondente de solução salina. Os parâmetros hemodinâmicos e de oxigenação foram avaliados no momento basal (TB), T30, T60, T120, T240 e T360 minutos. Amostras de sangue foram colhidas ainda em TB, T120 e T360 e armazenadas para posterior mensuração da concentração sérica de citocinas e marcadores cardíacos. Durante este período utilizou-se um protocolo de ressuscitação com Ringer lactato, norepinefrina (NE) e dobutamina para manutenção da pressão arterial média (PAM) > 65 mmHg, da pressão venosa central (PVC) em 8-12 mmHg e da saturação venosa mista de oxigênio (SvO2) > 65%. Os dados paramétricos foram analisados utilizando ANOVA de duas vias para medidas repetidas, seguidas por Tukey quando necessário, enquanto para os dados não paramétricos utilizaram-se os testes de Kruskall-Wallis e Mann-Whitney. A quantidade de fluido, NE e dobutamina foi analisada pelo teste t de Student, e a análise de sobrevivência foi realizada utilizando o Kaplan-Meier log-rank test. Exceto por um valor mais elevado do índice de resistência vascular sistêmica (IRVS) em T240 (p=0,02) nos animais tratados com metoprolol, todos os parâmetros analisados neste estudo apresentaram um comportamento similar em ambos os grupos. Nenhuma diferença foi observada também em relação ao volume total de fluido (p=0,914), à quantidade total de NE (p=0,069) e dobutamina (p=0,560) administrada, e ainda em relação à mortalidade. Embora estudos tenham demonstrado diversos benefícios na utilização de beta-bloqueadores em pacientes sépticos, e que estes tenham demonstrado resultados promissores, a administração de metoprolol não apresentou benefícios em nenhum dos parâmetros analisados em nosso modelo experimental. Porém, em um cenário onde a administração de beta-bloqueadores está em constante crescimento, é de grande importância saber que sua administração não apresenta efeitos deletérios nestes pacientes / The use of cardiovascular drugs considerably increased in recent years, including the use of ?-blockers, such as metoprolol. And although experimental and clinical studies had demonstrated benefits on the administration of these drugs in septic patients, the ?-blockade is still contradictory, especially in the septic shock. Twenty female pigs in which septic shock was induced through intravenous E. coli infusion (6x109 c.f.u/kg in 2h) were randomly assigned (n=10 per group) to the Metoprolol group (214.2 ?g kg-1 of metoprol infused in 45 minutes) or Control group, which received a correspondent volume of normal saline. Hemodynamic and oxygenation parameters were then evaluated at baseline (TB), T30, T60, T120, T240 and T360 minutes. Blood samples were collected at TB, T120 and T360 for posterior mensuration of serum cytokines and cardiac markers. During this period, a resuscitation protocol with lactated Ringer\'s solution, norepinephrine and dobutamine was used to maintain the mean arterial pressure (MAP) > 65 mmHg, the central venous pressure (CVP) between 8-12 mmHg and the mixed venous oxygen saturation (SvO2) > 65%. Parametric data were compared using the two-way repeated measures ANOVA, followed by the Tukey test when necessary, while the nonparametric data were analyzed with the Kruskall-Wallis and the Mann-Whitney test. The total volume of fluid and total amount of norepinephrine and dobutamine infused were analyzed by the Student\'s t-test. Survival analysis was performed using Kaplan-Meier log-rank test. Except for the higher values of systemic vascular resistance index (SVRI) at T240 (p=0.02) in the animals that received metoprolol, all the parameters analyzed in this study showed a similar behavior in both groups. No difference was also observed between groups in relation to the total volume of fluid (p=0.914), the total amount of norepinephrine (p=0.069) and dobutamine (p=0.560) infused, and related to the survival rate. Although some studies have demonstrated several benefits with the use of beta-blockers in patients with sepsis and show promising results, the administration of metoprolol did not improve any of the parameters analyzed in our experimental model. However, in a scenario where the administration of ?-blockers is increasing constantly, it is important to know that its administration do not present deleterious effects in these patients

Le choc septique est la principale cause de mortalité dans les services de réanimation. Les glucocorticoïdes (GC) et la protéine C activée (APC) sont deux traitements adjuvants recommandés au cours du choc septique. Ce travail a pour objectif d'évaluer l'impact de la combinaison d'APC et des GC sur les paramètres hémodynamiques et la survie. Le sepsis expérimental se caractérise par une hypotension artérielle avec acidose lactique et une hyporéactivité vasculaire. L'administration de Dexa et/ou d'APC permet de diminuer les taux de lactates, d'interleukines et de nitrate/nitrite. Chez les groupes traités, la contraction est améliorée ainsi que la relaxation vasculaire des aortes et des artères mésentériques. L'administration d'APC et de Dexa, seul ou en association, entraine une diminution de l'expression induite d'iNOS et la restauration de la voie Akt. La combinaison APC et Dexa améliore le temps de survie de façon synergique. Nos résultats suggèrent que l'APC et les GC devraient être réévalués en association dans le traitement du choc septique / Sepsis remains the major cause of death in intensive care units. International guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock recommend both stress-dose steroid therapy and recombinant activated protein C (APC). The aims of the present study were to compare the effects of APC and dexamethasone (Dexa) alone as well as in combination in resuscitated septic shock on survival, hemodynamics, and vascular reactivity. Sepsis was associated with a decrease in mean arterial pressure, elevation in plasma lactate and nitrite/nitrate concentration. Administration of APC, Dexa, and their combination improve arterial pressure and decrease lactate and nitrite/nitrate concentration. Both APC and Dexa improved arterial contractility and endothelial dysfunction resulting from septic shock in rats. The expression of iNOS was significantly reduced by the administration of Dexa, APC, and combination therapy. All treatments restore the Akt pathway. Moreover, their combination increased the length of survival. These findings suggest that APC and glucocorticoids should be further re-evaluated in combination in septic shock

Le choc septique est une pathologie fréquente associée à un taux de mortalité dépassant les 50%. Il s’agit de la première cause de mortalité en réanimation. Malgré les avancées des connaissances physiopathologiques sur le sepsis, le taux de mortalité reste très élevé. La majorité des recherches pré-cliniques sont réalisées sur des animaux jeunes et sains et sans antécédents cardiovasculaires, alors qu’il est bien établi que l’incidence et le taux de mortalité du sepsis augmente sévèrement avec l’âge. L’objectif de cette étude est la mise au point d’un modèle animal de sepsis ayant plusieurs antécédents cardiovasculaires, et l’évaluation des effets de la combinaison de deux maladies (hypertension et infarctus du myocarde (IDM)) chez des rats septiques sur la fonction cardiovasculaire et sur les voies de signalisation responsables de la réponse inflammatoire et apoptotique. L’étude a été réalisée sur des rats normotendus Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) et des rats Hypertendus Spontaneously Hypertensive (SHR) qui ont subi l’induction d’un IDM par ligature de l’artère coronaire gauche suivie ou non par l’induction d’un sepsis par ligature et perforation du caecum. Nous avons montré que les rats polypathologiques SHR, ayant subi un IDM préalable au choc septique, présentent une diminution drastique des paramètres cardiaques et hémodynamiques par rapport aux rats WKY ayant subi seulement un choc septique. En effet, le débit cardiaque, la pression artérielle moyenne et la fraction d’éjection sont diminuées respectivement de 70 %, 60 % et 67 % chez les rats SHR polypathologiques par rapport aux rats WKY ayant seulement un sepsis. On a observé également une hypo-réactivité vasculaire aux vasopresseurs plus importante chez les rats SHR-IDM-CLP comparée à celle des rats WKY-CLP. L’expression génique des récepteurs adrénergiques alpha-1 est fortement diminuée chez les rats SHR-IDM-CLP par rapport aux rats WKY-CLP. L’étude du taux d’expression des protéines impliquées dans l’apoptose révèle une surexpression des protéines caspase 3, caspase 8 et Pp38 chez les rats SHR polypathologiques des rats SHR-IDM-CLP par rapport aux rats WKY-CLP ayant seulement un sepsis. De plus, on remarque une forte diminution de l’expression des protéines eNOS et Akt chez les rats SHR-IDM-CLP comparés aux rats WKY-CLP. L’hypertension artérielle associée à l’insuffisance cardiaque a conduit à une plus grande sensibilité des rats au sepsis. Les rats SHR polypathologiques ont développé une insuffisance cardiaque aggravée par rapport aux rats WKY ayant seulement un sepsis. Le modèle de rats SHR ayant subi un IDM préalable au sepsis se rapproche d’avantage des situations cliniques observées quotidiennement dans les services de réanimation. Ce modèle pourrait servir de bon candidat pour les études pré-cliniques / Septic shock is considered as the most common cause of death among patients admitted in medical intensive care units. Mortality remains very high (50%) despite advances in physiopathological knowledge of this disease. In fact, most experimental studies are often conducted on young and healthy animals, whereas it is well established that the incidence and mortality rates dramatically increase with age. The goal of this study was to evaluate the effect of the combination of two diseases (hypertension and myocardial infarction) in a septic rat model, on cardiovascular function, cell survival and the inflammatory response. Therefore, we used normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY) and Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats (SHR) in which myocardial infarction was induced by left coronary descending artery ligation, followed or not by cecal ligation and perforation-induced sepsis. Our results showed that the polypathological SHR rats in which a myocardial infarction and sepsis were induced, exhibited a significant decrease in cardiac and hemodynamic parameters compared to WKY rats that have sepsis (CLP) only. Indeed, cardiac output, mean arterial pressure and ejection fraction were reduced by 70%, 60% and 67% respectively in the polypathological SHR rats versus the WKY rats with sepsis. We observed also that the vascular hyporeactivity in the polypathological SHR rats was higher than for the WKY CLP rats. A mesure of gene expression level of alpha1 adrenergic receptor shows a relatively low expression level in the rats from SHR IDM CLP rats compared to WKY CLP that could explain the observed vasodilation. The protein level of caspase3 and 8, Pp38 and proteins involved in apoptosis, is upregulated in SHR IDM CLP rats compared to WKY CLP rats. However, the polypathological SHR rats show a significant decrease in the expression of eNOS and Akt protein compared to WKY CLP rats. The combination of hypertension with myocardial infarct is associated with higher sensitivity of the rats to sepsis. The polypathological SHR rats developed a severe heart failure compared to WKY rats having sepsis only. Our animal model, the polypathological SHR rats is very close to observed clinical situations in intensive care units. This model could serve as a good candidate for pre-clinical studies.

Introdução: O choque séptico é complicação frequente e grave nos pacientes com câncer. Representa uma das principais causas de admissão em Unidade de Terapia Intensiva (UTI), com taxa de mortalidade em torno de 40% a 60%. O tratamento com vasopressor é parte fundamental do suporte hemodinâmico do paciente com choque séptico, sendo a norepinefrina o fármaco mais utilizado. Entretanto, aproximadamente 40% dos pacientes apresentam choque refratário a esse fármaco e vários eventos adversos são descritos, dentre eles vasoconstricção excessiva, redução do fluxo sanguíneo para os tecidos, distúrbios metabólicos e desequilíbrio imunológico. A vasopressina é um vasopressor não catecolaminérgico, que vem demonstrando ser eficiente vasopressor adjuvante no choque séptico. O objetivo desse estudo é avaliar se a vasopressina é superior à norepinefrina na mortalidade em 28 dias de pacientes com câncer e choque séptico. Métodos: Estudo unicêntrico, prospectivo, randomizado e duplo cego. Foram incluídos no estudo 250 pacientes com câncer e choque séptico no período de 20 de julho de 2013 a 6 de julho de 2016. Os pacientes foram randomizados para receber vasopressina (0,01 U/minuto a 0,06 U/minuto) ou norepinefrina (0,1 ug/kg/min a 1,0 ug/kg/min) como vasopressor no choque. A infusão dos fármacos foi titulada para manter a pressão arterial média (PAM) alvo ( >= 65 mmHg) após randomização. O desfecho primário foi mortalidade em 28 dias. Os desfechos secundários foram mortalidade em 90 dias, dias vivo e livres de ventilação mecânica, de vasopressores, e de terapia de substituição renal, e avaliação de disfunções orgânicas conforme o Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) 24 horas e 96 horas após a randomização. Resultados: Foram elegíveis 1116 pacientes, sendo 250 pacientes incluídos no estudo e randomizados para vasopressina (n = 125) ou para norepinefrina (n = 125). Não houve perdas ou violação de protocolo. Não houve diferença na mortalidade em 28 dias (56,8% no grupo vasopressina vs. 52,8% no grupo norepinefrina, p = 0,525). A mortalidade em 90 dias também não foi diferente nos grupos, respectivamente nos grupos vasopressina e norepinefrina (72,0% vs. 75,2%, p = 0,566). Não houve diferença entre os grupos vasopressina e norepinefrina em relação aos dias vivos e livres de ventilação mecânica [20 (6-28) vs. 22 (7-28), p = 0,748], de dias livres de vasopressores [10 (1-23) vs. 12 (1-24), p = 0,669], e dias livres de terapia de substituição renal [20 (7- 28) vs. 21 (7-28), p = 0,819]. O escore SOFA não foi diferente entre os grupos vasopressina e norepinefrina 24 horas após a randomização [8 (5-11) vs. 7 (5-10), p = 0,425] e 96 horas após [7 (2-12) vs. 7 (3-12), p = 0,825]. Conclusão: A vasopressina não é superior à norepinefrina na mortalidade em 28 dias de pacientes com câncer e choque séptico / Background: Septic shock is a frequent complication in cancer patients. It is one of the most common admission causes in the intensive care unit (ICU), with mortality rates of 40% to 60%. Patients with septic shock often need the use of vasopressors for hemodynamic support and norepinephrine is the most used medication in this setting. However, 40% of patients have shock that is refractory to norepinephrine and lots of adverse effects are described, including excessive vasoconstriction, reduced blood flow to tissues and cells, and metabolic and immunologic disorders. Vasopressin is commonly used as an adjunct to catecholamines to support blood pressure in refractory septic shock. We hypothesized that the use of vasopressin would be more effective on the treatment of septic shock in cancer patients than norepinephrine, decreasing 28-day mortality. Methods: In this prospective and randomized, double-blind trial, we assigned patients who had cancer and septic shock to receive either vasopressin (0.01 U/minute to 0.06 U/minute) or norepinephrine (10 ?g/minute to 60 ?g/minute) in addition to open-label vasopressors. All vasopressor infusions were titrated and tapered according to protocols in order to maintain a target mean arterial pressure of 65 mmHg. The primary endpoint was 28-day mortality. Secondary outcomes included 90-day mortality, days alive and free of mechanical ventilation, free of vasopressors and renal replacement therapy, and SOFA 24 h and 96h after randomization. Results: 1116 patients were eligible to the study. 250 patients were included on the study and underwent randomization: 125 patients received vasopressin and 125, norepinephrine. There was no difference between groups in 28-day mortality (56.8% in vasopressin group vs. 52.8% in norepinephrine group, p = 0.525). In addition, 90-day mortality was not different between vasopressin and norepinephrine groups (72% vs. 75.2%, p = 0.566). There was also no difference between vasopressin and norepinephrine groups in days alive and free of mechanical ventilation [20 (6- 28) vs. 22 (7-28), p = 0.748], free of vasopressors [10 (1-23) vs. 12 (1-24), p = 0.669], and renal replacement therapy [20 (7-28) vs. 21 (7-28), p = 0.819]. SOFA score was not different between vasopressin and norepinephrine groups after 24 h [8 (5-11) vs. 7 (5-10), p = 0.425] and after 96h [7 (2-12) vs. 7 (3-12), p = 0.825]. Conclusion: Vasopressin is not superior to norepinephrine in 28-day mortality rate in cancer patients with septic shock