A hipóxia-isquemia (HI) encefálica neonatal pode gerar sequelas neurológicas permanentes nos indivíduos que sobrevivem a este evento precoce. Dentre estas sequelas, o diagnóstico de Transtorno de déficit de atenção e hiperatividade (TDAH) já foi relacionado em pesquisa clínica. Sabendo que não há consenso de um modelo adequado para o estudo do TDAH em pesquisa experimental, novas abordagens que contribuam para o desenvolvimento desse modelo são necessárias. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar se a HI neonatal contribui para o desenvolvimento das características comportamentais relacionadas ao TDAH na fase adulta em ratos e correlacionar os resultados comportamentais com o volume da lesão encefálica. Para isso, ratos Wistar machos foram divididos em dois grupos: hipóxia-isquemia (HI, n=12) e controle (CT, n=10). O procedimento de HI consistiu na combinação da oclusão da artéria carótida comum direita no 7º dia pós-natal com exposição a uma atmosfera hipóxica (8% O2 e 92% N2, durante 90 minutos). Durante a fase adulta, ao atingir dois meses de idade, os animais foram testados no teste attentional set-shifting (ASS) para avaliar flexibilidade comportamental atencional e no teste de tolerância ao atraso da recompensa, para avaliação da escolha impulsiva. Os resultados mostraram que os animais submetidos à HI apresentaram prejuízo na função executiva, avaliado no ASS, evidenciado por uma inflexibilidade comportamental quando a regra para a execução da tarefa era mudada (p ≤ ,05 para o número de tentativas para passar dos estágios de Reversão 2 e Reversão 3, assim como o número de erros nesses estágios, além do estágio de mudança extradimensional – Teste t não-pareado). No teste de tolerância ao atraso da recompensa, não foi observada uma maior impulsividade dos animais HI, tendo os dois grupos um comportamento similar neste teste. Além disso, as avaliações do volume encefálico pelo Método de Cavalieri demonstraram uma atrofia no grupo HI no hemisfério total, córtex cerebral, substância branca, hipocampo e estriado, principalmente no lado ipsilateral à lesão (p ≤ ,05, Teste t não-pareado). Considerando esses resultados, podemos inferir que a HI neonatal é um fator ambiental que pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento das características comportamentais observadas no TDAH, e que estas são associadas a uma atrofia encefálica geral. / Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HI) can cause permanent neurological sequelae in survivors of this early event. Among these sequelae, the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has already been linked in clinical research. There is no consensus about an ideal ADHD model in experimental research, being necessary new approaches that contribute to the development of this model. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate whether HI contributes to the development of characteristics related to ADHD in adult rats and correlate the behavioral results with brain damage volume. Male Wistar rats were divided into two groups: hypoxia-ischemia (HI, n=12) and control (CT, n=10). The HI procedure consist of a permanent occlusion of the right common carotid artery followed by a period of hypoxia (90 min; 8% O2 and 92% N2), at seventh postnatal day (PND). Two months later, animals were evaluated in attentional set-shifting test (ASS) for assessment of attentional flexibility and in the tolerance to delay of reward, for evaluation of impulsivity choice. Our results demonstrated that animals submitted to HI manifest impairments in executive function, evidenced by a behavioral inflexibility when the rule for the execution of the ASS task was changed (p ≤ ,05 for number of trials to reach the criterion in Reversion 2 and 3 stages, as well as in number of erros in these stages, in addition to the Extradimensional shift stage – Unpaired t test). In the tolerance to delay of reward, no greater impulsivity of HI animals was observed, with both groups demonstrating similar behavior in this task. Moreover, the assessments of brain volume by Cavalieri method demonstrated atrophy in HI group in total hemisphere, cerebral cortex, white matter, hippocampus and striatum, especially on the side ipsilateral to the lesion (p ≤ ,05 – Unpaired t test). Considering these results, we can infer that neonatal HI is an environmental factor that could contribute to the development of behavioral characteristics observed in ADHD which are associated to general brain atrophy.

A hipóxia-isquemia (HI) encefálica neonatal pode gerar sequelas neurológicas permanentes nos indivíduos que sobrevivem a este evento precoce. Dentre estas sequelas, o diagnóstico de Transtorno de déficit de atenção e hiperatividade (TDAH) já foi relacionado em pesquisa clínica. Sabendo que não há consenso de um modelo adequado para o estudo do TDAH em pesquisa experimental, novas abordagens que contribuam para o desenvolvimento desse modelo são necessárias. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar se a HI neonatal contribui para o desenvolvimento das características comportamentais relacionadas ao TDAH na fase adulta em ratos e correlacionar os resultados comportamentais com o volume da lesão encefálica. Para isso, ratos Wistar machos foram divididos em dois grupos: hipóxia-isquemia (HI, n=12) e controle (CT, n=10). O procedimento de HI consistiu na combinação da oclusão da artéria carótida comum direita no 7º dia pós-natal com exposição a uma atmosfera hipóxica (8% O2 e 92% N2, durante 90 minutos). Durante a fase adulta, ao atingir dois meses de idade, os animais foram testados no teste attentional set-shifting (ASS) para avaliar flexibilidade comportamental atencional e no teste de tolerância ao atraso da recompensa, para avaliação da escolha impulsiva. Os resultados mostraram que os animais submetidos à HI apresentaram prejuízo na função executiva, avaliado no ASS, evidenciado por uma inflexibilidade comportamental quando a regra para a execução da tarefa era mudada (p ≤ ,05 para o número de tentativas para passar dos estágios de Reversão 2 e Reversão 3, assim como o número de erros nesses estágios, além do estágio de mudança extradimensional – Teste t não-pareado). No teste de tolerância ao atraso da recompensa, não foi observada uma maior impulsividade dos animais HI, tendo os dois grupos um comportamento similar neste teste. Além disso, as avaliações do volume encefálico pelo Método de Cavalieri demonstraram uma atrofia no grupo HI no hemisfério total, córtex cerebral, substância branca, hipocampo e estriado, principalmente no lado ipsilateral à lesão (p ≤ ,05, Teste t não-pareado). Considerando esses resultados, podemos inferir que a HI neonatal é um fator ambiental que pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento das características comportamentais observadas no TDAH, e que estas são associadas a uma atrofia encefálica geral. / Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HI) can cause permanent neurological sequelae in survivors of this early event. Among these sequelae, the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has already been linked in clinical research. There is no consensus about an ideal ADHD model in experimental research, being necessary new approaches that contribute to the development of this model. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate whether HI contributes to the development of characteristics related to ADHD in adult rats and correlate the behavioral results with brain damage volume. Male Wistar rats were divided into two groups: hypoxia-ischemia (HI, n=12) and control (CT, n=10). The HI procedure consist of a permanent occlusion of the right common carotid artery followed by a period of hypoxia (90 min; 8% O2 and 92% N2), at seventh postnatal day (PND). Two months later, animals were evaluated in attentional set-shifting test (ASS) for assessment of attentional flexibility and in the tolerance to delay of reward, for evaluation of impulsivity choice. Our results demonstrated that animals submitted to HI manifest impairments in executive function, evidenced by a behavioral inflexibility when the rule for the execution of the ASS task was changed (p ≤ ,05 for number of trials to reach the criterion in Reversion 2 and 3 stages, as well as in number of erros in these stages, in addition to the Extradimensional shift stage – Unpaired t test). In the tolerance to delay of reward, no greater impulsivity of HI animals was observed, with both groups demonstrating similar behavior in this task. Moreover, the assessments of brain volume by Cavalieri method demonstrated atrophy in HI group in total hemisphere, cerebral cortex, white matter, hippocampus and striatum, especially on the side ipsilateral to the lesion (p ≤ ,05 – Unpaired t test). Considering these results, we can infer that neonatal HI is an environmental factor that could contribute to the development of behavioral characteristics observed in ADHD which are associated to general brain atrophy.

Cognitive deficits are the single strongest predictor of the functional outcome in patients with schizophrenia. Current treatments are largely ineffective in improving cognitive impairments and promising pre-clinical research has mostly failed to translate clinically. Despite the advances provided by rodent models, the neurobiological basis of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia is poorly understood. Therefore, this thesis proposes a zebrafish model for studying cognitive impairments of schizophrenia. Although more evolutionarily distant to humans compared to the rat, the zebrafish has emerged as a popular vertebrate model of human disorders due to its genetic tractability, complex nervous system and elaborate behavioural repertoire. We investigated the effects of genetic alterations and neurodevelopmental disruption on behaviour and learning in zebrafish. Using both disc1 mutant lines and sub-chronic phencyclidine (PCP) on larvae from 6-10 dpf, we were able to assess behavioural changes as a function of developmental age. In particular, this thesis aimed to develop appropriate behavioural assays to assess zebrafish learning and executive function relevant to disorders seen in human patients with schizophrenia. It was possible to demonstrate robust learning across several domains, namely, reversal, classical avoidance and non-associative learning, alongside locomotor and anxiety-related behaviours. There were varied deficits associated with each of the two – genetic (disc1 gene mutation) and environmental (sub-chronic PCP) – manipulations, consistent with observations in rat research. Together, the research in this thesis demonstrates that a zebrafish model exhibits behaviour resembling that of mammalian models of schizophrenia and provides a foundation for the utility of zebrafish in examining cognitive impairments associated with schizophrenia.

No description available.

Des études récentes ont montré que le noyau caudé interagissait avec le cortex préfrontal et qu’il pourrait être impliqué dans les fonctions exécutives. Le but de cette thèse était d’étudier la contribution du noyau caudé dans les fonctions exécutives, plus précisément dans des tâches de monitoring et de changement de règle, et d’observer comment ces régions fronto-striatales interagissent avec le réseau par défaut (RPD). Dans un premier temps, nous avons étudié le rôle du noyau caudé dans les deux types de monitoring : le monitoring d’origine interne, consistant à effectuer un suivi sur l’état de l’information en mémoire de travail afin de pouvoir faire un choix subséquent, et dans le monitoring d’origine externe où le suivi sur l’état des items est effectué par l’individu, mais la sélection est exécutée par une source externe. Il a été montré que le cortex préfrontal dorsolatéral (CPFDL) est impliqué dans les deux types de monitoring. À l’aide de l’imagerie par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (IRMf), nos résultats ont montré une augmentation significative du signal BOLD au niveau du CPFDL dans les contrastes des conditions de monitoring d’origine interne et monitoring d’origine externe par rapport à la condition contrôle. De manière plus importante, une augmentation significative de l’activité a été observée dans le noyau caudé seulement dans les soustractions impliquant le monitoring d’origine interne par rapport à la condition contrôle, et par rapport à la condition de monitoring d’origine externe. En deuxième lieu, des études ont montré une contribution spécifique des régions fronto-striatales dans l’exécution d’un changement de règle. Toutefois, l’effet d’un changement de règle sur l’activité cérébrale n’a jamais été étudié sur les essais subséquents. À l’aide de l’IRMf, le cortex préfrontal ventrolatéral (CPFVL) et le noyau caudé ont montré une augmentation significative de leur activité lors des changements de règle continus et lors des changements de règles sporadiques par rapport à la condition contrôle, et aussi lors des essais où le maintien d’une même règle devait être effectué pour une courte durée par opposition au contrôle. Cependant, aucune activité fronto-striatale n’a été observée lorsqu’une même règle devait être appliquée pour une plus longue période. De plus, une diminution significative de l’activité du noyau caudé a été observée lors de la répétition de l’exécution d’une même règle suggérant une meilleure intégration de cette dernière. Finalement, plusieurs études ont montré une déactivation du RPD lors de l’exécution de tâches. À l’aide de l’IRMf, nous avons posé l’hypothèse que le RPD serait corrélé négativement avec les régions fronto-striatales lors de l’exécution d’une tâche de changement de règle. Nos résultats montrent une augmentation significative de l’activité des régions fronto-striatales lors d’une augmentation du nombre d’essais de changement de règle consécutif, pendant que le RPD montre une déactivation continue. De façon intéressante, pendant que les régions fronto-striatales montrent une diminution de leur activité lors de l’exécution d’une même règle pour une longue période, le RPD augmente son activité de façon significative. On conclut donc que le noyau caudé joue un rôle important dans la planification d’une nouvelle action lorsque plusieurs possibilités doivent être considérées en mémoire de travail, et ce en même temps. Finalement, le RPD montre une corrélation négative avec les régions fronto-striatales suggérant sa participation dans l’intégration d’une tâche devenant de plus en plus familière. / Recent studies have shown that the caudate nucleus interacts with the prefrontal cortex, and that it is involved in executive processes. The goal of the thesis was to investigate the role of the caudate nucleus in executive processes, and to observe how the frontostriatal regions are interacting with the default mode network (DMN). Firstly, we studied the role of the caudate nucleus in self-ordered monitoring, which consist of keeping track of which stimuli have been selected and which remains to be selected, and externally-triggered monitoring, which refers to keeping track of one’s selection when an external source is performing the selection. It has been shown that de dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) was particularly involved in both types of monitoring. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), a significant increase of activity has been observed in the DLPFC during both monitoring conditions vs control condition. Importantly, significant increased activity in the caudate nucleus was observed only in subtractions involving self-ordered monitoring (the self-ordered vs control and self-ordered vs externally-triggered conditions). Secondly, previous studies have shown a specific contribution of frontostriatal regions during set-shifting. However, the effect of set-shifting on subsequent trials had yet to be determined. Using fMRI, significant increase of activity was observed in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) and the caudate nucleus during shifting trials versus control and in trials where the same rule was applied for a few trials before a set-shift occurred. However, no frontostriatal activity was observed when the same rule was applied for a longer period. Decreased activity in the caudate nucleus correlated with increasing trial position in trials where no set-shift occurred, suggesting that the more a rule is executed, the better it is established. Finally, several studies have shown a deactivation of the DMN during the execution of a goal-directed task. Using fMRI, we hypothesized that the DMN was negatively correlated with the frontostriatal regions during the execution of a set-shifting task. Our results showed a significant increase of activity in the frontostriatal regions as more set-shifts are being performed while the DMN gets more deactivated. Interestingly, as decreased activity was observed in the frontostriatal regions during the execution of the same rule for a long period, the DMN showed increasing activity. We concluded that the caudate nucleus is specifically involved during the planning of a novel action when several possibilities are available at the same time. Finally, the DMN shows a negative correlation with the frontostriatal regions suggesting its contribution to the execution of a more familiar task.

Bien que le passage du temps altère le cerveau, la cognition ne suit pas nécessairement le même destin. En effet, il existe des mécanismes compensatoires qui permettent de préserver la cognition (réserve cognitive) malgré le vieillissement. Les personnes âgées peuvent utiliser de nouveaux circuits neuronaux (compensation neuronale) ou des circuits existants moins susceptibles aux effets du vieillissement (réserve neuronale) pour maintenir un haut niveau de performance cognitive. Toutefois, la façon dont ces mécanismes affectent l’activité corticale et striatale lors de tâches impliquant des changements de règles (set-shifting) et durant le traitement sémantique et phonologique n’a pas été extensivement explorée. Le but de cette thèse est d’explorer comment le vieillissement affecte les patrons d’activité cérébrale dans les processus exécutifs d’une part et dans l’utilisation de règles lexicales d’autre part. Pour cela nous avons utilisé l’imagerie par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (IRMf) lors de la performance d’une tâche lexicale analogue à celle du Wisconsin. Cette tâche a été fortement liée à de l’activité fronto-stritale lors des changements de règles, ainsi qu’à la mobilisation de régions associées au traitement sémantique et phonologique lors de décisions sémantiques et phonologiques, respectivement. Par conséquent, nous avons comparé l’activité cérébrale de jeunes individus (18 à 35 ans) à celle d’individus âgés (55 à 75 ans) lors de l’exécution de cette tâche. Les deux groupes ont montré l’implication de boucles fronto-striatales associées à la planification et à l’exécution de changements de règle. Toutefois, alors que les jeunes semblaient activer une « boucle cognitive » (cortex préfrontal ventrolatéral, noyau caudé et thalamus) lorsqu’ils se voyaient indiquer qu’un changement de règle était requis, et une « boucle motrice » (cortex postérieur préfrontal et putamen) lorsqu’ils devaient effectuer le changement, les participants âgés montraient une activation des deux boucles lors de l’exécution des changements de règle seulement. Les jeunes adultes tendaient à présenter une augmentation de l’activité du cortex préfrontal ventrolatéral, du gyrus fusiforme, du lobe ventral temporale et du noyau caudé lors des décisions sémantiques, ainsi que de l’activité au niveau de l’aire de Broca postérieur, de la junction temporopariétale et du cortex moteur lors de décisions phonologiques. Les participants âgés ont montré de l’activité au niveau du cortex préfrontal latéral et moteur durant les deux types de décisions lexicales. De plus, lorsque les décisions sémantiques et phonologiques ont été comparées entre elles, les jeunes ont montré des différences significatives au niveau de plusieurs régions cérébrales, mais pas les âgés. En conclusion, notre première étude a montré, lors du set-shifting, un délai de l’activité cérébrale chez les personnes âgées. Cela nous a permis de conceptualiser l’Hypothèse Temporelle de Compensation (troisième manuscrit) qui consiste en l’existence d’un mécanisme compensatoire caractérisé par un délai d’activité cérébrale lié au vieillissement permettant de préserver la cognition au détriment de la vitesse d’exécution. En ce qui concerne les processus langagiers (deuxième étude), les circuits sémantiques et phonologiques semblent se fusionner dans un seul circuit chez les individus âgés, cela représente vraisemblablement des mécanismes de réserve et de compensation neuronales qui permettent de préserver les habilités langagières. / As the one’s brain is structurally altered by the passage of time, cognition does not have to suffer the same faith, at least not to the same extent. Indeed, age-related compensatory mechanisms allow for some cognitive preservation. The elderly can therefore use new compensatory neuronal networks (neural compensation) or flexible pathways that are less susceptible to disruption (neural reserve) in order to maintain high levels of performance (cognitive reserve) during cognitive tasks. However, how these mechanisms affect cortical and striatal activity during set-shifting as well as during semantic and phonological processing has not been extensively explored. The purpose of this thesis was therefore to investigate how aging affects patterns of neural activity related to executive processes on the one hand and the use of lexical rules on the other. To this end we used functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) during the performance of a lexical analogue of the Wisconsin Card-Sorting Test. This task has been shown to strongly depend on fronto-striatal activity during set-shifting as well as on regions associated with semantic and phonological processing during semantic and phonological decisions, respectively. Two groups participated in our fMRI protocol: young individuals (18 to 35 years old) and older individuals (55 to 75 years old). Both younger and older individuals revealed significant fronto-striatal loop activity associated with planning and execution of set-shifts. However, while the younger group showed the involvement of a “cognitive loop” (including the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, the caudate nucleus and the thalamus) when instructed that a set-shift would be required on following trial, and the involvement of a “motor loop” (including the posterior prefrontal cortex and the putamen) when the set-shift had to be performed, the older participants showed significant activation of both loops during the execution of the set-shift (matching periods) only. Young adults tended to present increased activity in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the fusiform gyrus, the ventral temporal lobe and the caudate nucleus during semantic decisions and in the posterior Broca’s area, the temporoparietal junction and the motor cortical regions during phonological decisions, older individuals showed increased activity in the lateral prefrontal cortex and motor cortical regions during both semantic and phonological decisions. Furthermore, when semantic and phonological decisions were contrasted with each other, younger individuals showed significant brain activity differences in several regions while older individuals did not. In conclusion, our first study showed an age-related delayed cerebral activation phenomenon during set-shifting (previously observed only in few memory and language tasks). Based on those findings, we conceptualised the Temporal Hypothesis of Compensation (third manuscript) which is the existence of a compensatory mechanism characterised by age-related delayed cerebral activation allowing for cognitive performance to be preserved at the expense of speed processing. Regarding language processing (second study), semantic and phonological routes seem to merge into a single pathway in the elderly; these findings represent most probably neural reserve/compensation mechanisms on which the elderly rely to maintain an adequate level of performance.

Des études récentes ont montré que le noyau caudé interagissait avec le cortex préfrontal et qu’il pourrait être impliqué dans les fonctions exécutives. Le but de cette thèse était d’étudier la contribution du noyau caudé dans les fonctions exécutives, plus précisément dans des tâches de monitoring et de changement de règle, et d’observer comment ces régions fronto-striatales interagissent avec le réseau par défaut (RPD). Dans un premier temps, nous avons étudié le rôle du noyau caudé dans les deux types de monitoring : le monitoring d’origine interne, consistant à effectuer un suivi sur l’état de l’information en mémoire de travail afin de pouvoir faire un choix subséquent, et dans le monitoring d’origine externe où le suivi sur l’état des items est effectué par l’individu, mais la sélection est exécutée par une source externe. Il a été montré que le cortex préfrontal dorsolatéral (CPFDL) est impliqué dans les deux types de monitoring. À l’aide de l’imagerie par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (IRMf), nos résultats ont montré une augmentation significative du signal BOLD au niveau du CPFDL dans les contrastes des conditions de monitoring d’origine interne et monitoring d’origine externe par rapport à la condition contrôle. De manière plus importante, une augmentation significative de l’activité a été observée dans le noyau caudé seulement dans les soustractions impliquant le monitoring d’origine interne par rapport à la condition contrôle, et par rapport à la condition de monitoring d’origine externe. En deuxième lieu, des études ont montré une contribution spécifique des régions fronto-striatales dans l’exécution d’un changement de règle. Toutefois, l’effet d’un changement de règle sur l’activité cérébrale n’a jamais été étudié sur les essais subséquents. À l’aide de l’IRMf, le cortex préfrontal ventrolatéral (CPFVL) et le noyau caudé ont montré une augmentation significative de leur activité lors des changements de règle continus et lors des changements de règles sporadiques par rapport à la condition contrôle, et aussi lors des essais où le maintien d’une même règle devait être effectué pour une courte durée par opposition au contrôle. Cependant, aucune activité fronto-striatale n’a été observée lorsqu’une même règle devait être appliquée pour une plus longue période. De plus, une diminution significative de l’activité du noyau caudé a été observée lors de la répétition de l’exécution d’une même règle suggérant une meilleure intégration de cette dernière. Finalement, plusieurs études ont montré une déactivation du RPD lors de l’exécution de tâches. À l’aide de l’IRMf, nous avons posé l’hypothèse que le RPD serait corrélé négativement avec les régions fronto-striatales lors de l’exécution d’une tâche de changement de règle. Nos résultats montrent une augmentation significative de l’activité des régions fronto-striatales lors d’une augmentation du nombre d’essais de changement de règle consécutif, pendant que le RPD montre une déactivation continue. De façon intéressante, pendant que les régions fronto-striatales montrent une diminution de leur activité lors de l’exécution d’une même règle pour une longue période, le RPD augmente son activité de façon significative. On conclut donc que le noyau caudé joue un rôle important dans la planification d’une nouvelle action lorsque plusieurs possibilités doivent être considérées en mémoire de travail, et ce en même temps. Finalement, le RPD montre une corrélation négative avec les régions fronto-striatales suggérant sa participation dans l’intégration d’une tâche devenant de plus en plus familière. / Recent studies have shown that the caudate nucleus interacts with the prefrontal cortex, and that it is involved in executive processes. The goal of the thesis was to investigate the role of the caudate nucleus in executive processes, and to observe how the frontostriatal regions are interacting with the default mode network (DMN). Firstly, we studied the role of the caudate nucleus in self-ordered monitoring, which consist of keeping track of which stimuli have been selected and which remains to be selected, and externally-triggered monitoring, which refers to keeping track of one’s selection when an external source is performing the selection. It has been shown that de dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) was particularly involved in both types of monitoring. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), a significant increase of activity has been observed in the DLPFC during both monitoring conditions vs control condition. Importantly, significant increased activity in the caudate nucleus was observed only in subtractions involving self-ordered monitoring (the self-ordered vs control and self-ordered vs externally-triggered conditions). Secondly, previous studies have shown a specific contribution of frontostriatal regions during set-shifting. However, the effect of set-shifting on subsequent trials had yet to be determined. Using fMRI, significant increase of activity was observed in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) and the caudate nucleus during shifting trials versus control and in trials where the same rule was applied for a few trials before a set-shift occurred. However, no frontostriatal activity was observed when the same rule was applied for a longer period. Decreased activity in the caudate nucleus correlated with increasing trial position in trials where no set-shift occurred, suggesting that the more a rule is executed, the better it is established. Finally, several studies have shown a deactivation of the DMN during the execution of a goal-directed task. Using fMRI, we hypothesized that the DMN was negatively correlated with the frontostriatal regions during the execution of a set-shifting task. Our results showed a significant increase of activity in the frontostriatal regions as more set-shifts are being performed while the DMN gets more deactivated. Interestingly, as decreased activity was observed in the frontostriatal regions during the execution of the same rule for a long period, the DMN showed increasing activity. We concluded that the caudate nucleus is specifically involved during the planning of a novel action when several possibilities are available at the same time. Finally, the DMN shows a negative correlation with the frontostriatal regions suggesting its contribution to the execution of a more familiar task.

The purpose of this thesis was to develop methodology by which treatments for the cognitive impairments in Huntington's disease (HD) could be tested. As such, the thesis focused mainly on evaluating rats with quinolinic acid (QA) lesions of the striatum, as this manipulation mimics some aspects of the neural damage in Huntington's disease, to try to identify cognitive deficits of HD resulting from cell loss in the striatum. In the first part (Chapters 3-5), the role of the striatum in implicit memory was investigated. Chapter 3 compared the performance of rats and humans on a reaction time task that evaluated implicit memory by presenting visual stimuli with differing probabilities which change over time. Although rats made higher percentage of incorrect responses and late errors, both groups showed a similar pattern of reaction times. Chapter 4 investigated whether implicit memory (the computation of probabilities to predict the location of a stimulus) was affected by selective blockade of dopaminergic transmission at the D1 or D2 receptors by SCH-23390 and raclopride, respectively. Reaction times were slower with SCH-23390 and raclopride, but only SCH-23390 reduced errors to the least probable target location. Chapter 5 used the same task to evaluate implicit memory in rats with QA lesions of the dorsomedial striatum (DMS). Implicit memory was not affected by lesions of the DMS, which suggested that once a task that requires implicit memory has been learned, the DMS was not involved in sustaining the performance of the task. The second part of this thesis (Chapter 6), explored the contribution of the DMS in habit formation. DMS lesioned rats did not show habitual responding, and were not impaired in learning a new goal-directed behaviour. The third part (Chapters 7 and 8), investigated the role of the dorsal striatum in reversal learning, attentional set-formation, and set-shifting. Dorsal striatum lesioned rats were not impaired in reversal learning, but had a diminished shift-cost, which suggested that dorsal striatum lesions disrupted the formation of attentional sets. These results showed that although QA lesions of the dorsal striatum mimic some aspects of the neural damage in HD, they did not result in the same cognitive deficits observed in patients with HD, at least using the tasks presented in this thesis. However, other animal models of HD could be evaluated using the different tasks presented in this thesis to continue the search of a reliable animal model of HD in which treatments for the disease could be evaluated.