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The following thesis examines Pieter Bruegel the Elder's religious paintings and audience engagement, as based not solely on the content of the works, but on their formal structure, as well. Vignettes and smaller figure groups within Bruegel's compositions provide the basic structure and platform for an intertextual and intervisual engagement. The religious, social, and political context of the mid-sixteenth century is also considered to help frame the connection between the viewer and the following paintings: Procession to Calvary (1564, Vienna), Sermon of St. John the Baptist (1566, Budapest) and Conversion of St. Paul (1567, Vienna). / Art History

Ce travail s’intéresse à la façon dont l’actualité française des guerres de religion a eu une influence sur la manière dont les autorités anglaises ont pris conscience du pouvoir de l’imprimé entre 1570 et 1610. À partir d’un corpus rassemblant des textes polémiques publiés en France et traduits puis diffusés en Angleterre, l’étude examine la prise en main par la Couronne d’Angleterre de l’utilisation du livre imprimé comme instrument d’action politique à part entière. Après une difficile phase d’apprentissage pendant la décennie 1570, le pouvoir anglais s’empare du livre pour combattre les Jésuites venus de France et promouvoir Henri de Navarre comme héros protestant. Cependant, la conversion du roi met un terme à l’engouement des Anglais pour la geste huguenote, tout en permettant au livre imprimé d’investir le champ des études historiques. L’accession de Jacques Stuart au trône d’Angleterre et l’expérience acquise pendant les trente années précédentes permettent aux libraires anglais, en concurrence avec le monarque, de diffuser les écrits royaux sur l’île mais aussi dans toute l’Europe. / This work studies how the French events of the religious wars have had an influence over the way in which the English authorities became aware of the power of the printed book between 1570 and 1610. It focuses on a corpus composed of polemical texts published in France, then translated and scattered in England. It shows how the English Crown gradually learnt to use the printed book as a political instrument. After a first period during which the authorities strove to master the polemical printed text, they made use of it in order to fight against the Jesuits coming from France as well as to promote the king of Navarre as a Protestant hero. Yet, Henri IV’s recantation put an end to the English passion for Huguenot victories, even though they remained interested in French history books. James Stuart’s coming to the throne in 1603, along with their experience of the previous thirty years, enabled English printers to compete with the new king for the spreading of royal treatises, in England as well as in Europe.

This thesis investigates legal and political authority in mid-Tudor England, using the operation of the legal system in Oxfordshire and Berkshire in the period from 1540 to 1570 as a case study through which to give context and content to more abstract forms of contemporary political thought. It seeks to address the broad question: how did people experience the civil—as opposed to the criminal—legal system, and what does this tell us about their understanding of authority? In so doing, it aims to shed light on mid-Tudor attitudes towards legality, limited government and the rule of law. The argument of the thesis is built up piece by piece. First, people in the Thames Valley engaged in a remarkable, and increasing, amount of litigation over the period in question, much of which was based on antecedent commercial transactions. Encountering the law, whether in its litigious or transactional forms, was thus a very common social experience. Second, despite their frequent interaction with the legal system, ordinary people perhaps knew less about the technical law than some historians have suggested. Third, even if technical legal knowledge was not widespread among the population, the complicated map of overlapping jurisdictions and rival legal institutions meant that ordinary people nonetheless cultivated a detailed mental map of their legal world. Boundaries mattered because jurisdiction and legal authority mattered. Fourth, partly because of their own lack of detailed technical knowledge, and partly because of the complicated legal landscape which they had to navigate, people sought out legal advice from professional advisers. Fifth, even if people frequently sought out professional legal advice, many people’s experience of the law (and of lawyers) was far more negative than their desire to seek out such advice might suggest. Seen in this light, the social utility of legal institutions was quite separate from their ability to provide an idealised standard of abstract justice.

Após a viagem inaugural de Vasco da Gama, os portugueses traçaram um projeto ambicioso de controle das rotas e dos entrepostos comerciais do oceano Índico, que previa a instalação de feitorias nas cidades africanas costeiras de Quiloa e Sofala. A importância dessa última residia na sua proximidade com os centros produtores de ouro do interior do continente, principalmente o reino do Monomotapa, identificado pelos contemporâneos como o mais rico e poderoso da região. Se no início de sua presença na costa índica os lusitanos aguardaram os mercadores africanos dentro da fortaleza, a partir da queda do volume nos negócios os comerciantes particulares e representantes da Coroa passaram a prospectar o sertão em busca das fontes de riqueza que escapavam da feitoria, desviadas pelas redes mercantis muçulmanas para a cidade de Angoche. Em duas fases distintas, o movimento português em direção ao sertão do continente africano se desenrolou ao longo de todo o século XVI e seus atores produziram grande volume de documentos sobre as diversas características das sociedades com que travaram contato. A partir do vasto conjunto documental, e partindo do pressuposto de que a aplicação de uma metodologia de leitura crítica das fontes nos permitiria acessar, ainda que não em sua totalidade, características das estruturas sociais, políticas e econômicas shona, o objetivo dessa pesquisa é investigar a história política do reino do Monomotapa ao longo do Quinhentos, tendo como ponto de partida a investigação dos interesses que levaram os mutapas a estabelecer relações amistosas com os lusitanos que penetraram em seu território. Ainda que o foco central não seja a presença dos portugueses em África, entendemos que a história do Monomotapa no século XVI somente pode ser compreendida a partir do contato, uma vez que o encontro dos projetos e interesses shona e português provocou o surgimento de novos contextos e arranjos significativos para as dinâmicas históricas dessa região. / After the inaugural trip of Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese have drawn an ambitious project for the control of routes and trading posts of the Indian Ocean, which included the installation of trading stations in the African coastal cities of Kilwa and Sofala. The importance of the latter lays in its proximity to the gold producers in the outback, especially in the Kingdom of the Monomotapa - identified by contemporaries as the richest and most powerful in the region. At the beginning of its presence on the coast, the Portuguese traders waited for African merchants inside the fortress. As the volume of business decreased, the private traders and agents of the Crown began to explore the wilderness due to the seeking of wealth sources that did not reach the feitoria of Sofala. By that time, Muslims had shifted commercial networks for the city of Angoche. In two different phases, the Portuguese movement towards the hinterland of the continent took place throughout the sixteenth century. This research relies on the vast amount of documents left behind by the Portuguese when they passed that encounter . It is based on the assumption that the use of a methodology of critical reading of the sources allows us to approach Shonas political, social and economic structures. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to investigate the political history of the kingdom of Monomotapa throughout the sixteenth century, starting with the research of the interests which led the Mutapas to establish friendly relations with the Lusitanians who invaded their territory. Even though the Portuguese presence in Africa is not our main focus, we understand that the history of Monomotapa in the sixteenth century can only be understood through the analysis of the contact of this people with the Portuguese. This is to say that the projects and interests of the Shona and the Portuguese led to the rise of new contexts and significant arrangements for the historical dynamics in this region.

Esta tese tem como objetivo apontar e comentar as estratégias de construção e de legitimação de um ethos de advogado da causa ueritatis nas polêmicas religiosas do século XVI. Trata-se aqui de defender uma posição num contexto em que só há um Deus e só há uma Verdade, e, portanto, somente uma interpretação é verdadeira. O autor cristão envolvido em polêmicas precisa, pois, provar que ele é o \"enviado\", o nuntius que proclama a mensagem com simplicidade, ao passo que seus oponentes são os \"falsos mestres\" que, para dissimular suas mentiras, ocultam-nas sob palavras artisticamente trabalhadas. Assim, não apenas a construção do ethos \"positivo\" de um está vinculada à desconstrução (ou destruição) do ethos do outro, mas ambas - construção e desconstrução - dão-se segundo o ideário da humilitas, a qual é, ao mesmo tempo, constitutiva da moral (ética) e da expressão discursiva (estética). / The objective of this doctoral dissertation is to identify and comment on the strategies of construction and legitimization of an ethos of an advocate in the causa ueritatis in the religious polemics of the sixteenth century. It is a way of defending a position within a context in which there is only one God and only one Truth, and, therefore, only one true interpretation. The Christian author involved in such polemic needs to prove that he is the \"emissary,\" the nuntius who proclaims the message with simplicity, whereas his opponents are the \"false masters\" who, in order to dissimulate their lies, hide them under artistically woven words. Thus, not only is the construction of the positive ethos linked to the deconstruction (or destruction) of the other\'s ethos; but both, construction and deconstruction, happen according to the concept of humilitas, which is, at the same time, constitutive of morals (ethics) and of discursive expression (esthetics).

"Drawing as a Way of Knowing: Architectural Survey in the Late Renaissance" explores a group of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century architectural manuscripts that are each part of a network of copies. Made by French and Italian draftsmen studying ancient and modern Roman monuments from the 1560s to the 1640s, the drawings contain information about the buildings--which include the Pantheon and Saint Peter's--that is not known from any other sources. Yet the information that the drawings preserve is only part of their value: the drawings also show how that information was recorded, transferred, and valued by other draftsmen. With a special focus on chronological complications, "Drawing as a Way of Knowing" examines the singularities that are produced when draftsmen try to repeat pictorial statements exactly. These chronological complications include the representation of elements that no longer exist, that never existed, or that collapse several distinct chronological moments into a single image. All these complications can be found in the network of drawings now found in the Goldschmidt and Scholz Scrapbooks in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Ms XII. D. 74 in the Biblioteca Nazionale di Napoli, the Cronstedt Collection of the Stockholm Nationalmuseum, the album known as Architectura Civile in the Paper Museum of Cassiano dal Pozzo at Windsor Castle, codex Destailleur D at the Berlin Kunstbibliothek, the Album François Derand at the Louvre, and Ms B 2. 3 at the Worcester College Library at Oxford. This dissertation examines this web of manuscripts to consider how drawing was used as a way of knowing after the invention of print.

This thesis examines how biblical typology was used in early modern Scotland. It focuses on the works of the Aberdonian minister and theologian, William Guild (1586–1657), who was one of the most prominent seventeenth-­‐century typological exegetes. His handbook, Moses Unvailed (1620), has been repeatedly noted as one of the key works in the development of Protestant typology. Yet his typological exegesis has not been properly explored. Indeed, detailed analysis of Guild’s life and works has been lacking. This study seeks to address those issues. Chapter One offers an updated biography of Guild, focusing on his intellectual development and religious involvement. Chapter Two provides the first detailed study of the theological influences on, and beliefs undergirding, Moses Unvailed, showing that Guild’s typological exegesis became more Christocentric in the period between 1608 and 1620. Chapters Three and Four explore the varied uses of typology in Guild’s sermons, biblical study aids, polemical works, and political treatises, drawing comparisons with his Scottish contemporaries. Chapter Three examines how typology was used in works addressed to godly audiences, while Chapter Four focuses on how typology was used in works aimed at theological opponents and political authorities. These chapters suggest that typology was consistently used – either directly or indirectly – to edify Reformed Protestants. Chapter Five turns to Guild’s commentaries to consider how typology related to allegorical, moral, and prophetic exegesis. This chapter argues that while typology was rarely Guild’s primary interpretative approach it still served vital functions in allowing him to reinforce, clarify, and expand his expositions. This thesis provides the first study of early modern typology in a Scottish context and also represents the most detailed engagement with Guild’s works to date. It challenges the divisions that have been drawn by scholars between different applications of typology and argues that Guild’s distinction between types and comparisons offers a more helpful way of understanding the varied uses of typology in early modern Scotland. From this analysis a clearer understanding of the functions of typology for early modern exegetes emerges. This thesis argues that while, for Guild and his contemporaries, typology served to demonstrate how the Old Testament reveals Christ, they were frequently drawn to this approach because it also gave them a biblically and providentially grounded means of articulating their vision of Protestant godliness.