En el Cuzco de la última veintena del siglo XVI ejercían su labor de escribanos públicos de cabildo Pedro Quispe y Pedro de la Carrera. El primero de ellos, de origen indígena, dejó un libro de protocolo en que trataba los asuntos particulares de los indígenas que habitaban la parroquia de Nuestra Señora de la Purificación del Cuzco. Pedro de la Carrera realizará la misma labor en el cabildo del Cuzco llevando, sobre todo, los asuntos privados de los habitantes españoles, criollos y mestizos cuzqueños. Los documentos que un día configuraron sus respectivos libros de protocolo sirven de corpus para el presente trabajo. Partiendo de dicha documentación se realiza una aproximación al panorama de variación lingüística en la ciudad de Cuzco en la última veintena del siglo XVI. Variación lingüística que hallamos en el español empleado por indígenas con diferente formación y contrastamos con el castellano de españoles, criollos y, tal vez, algún mestizo de la misma época y ciudad. El corpus documental empleado es original y autógrafo, y está constituido por documentos pertenecientes a una misma tradición discursiva, factores estos que, debidamente aprovechados, contribuyen a la fidelidad de la muestra. / In the last twenty Cuzco sixteenth century they exercised their work of public notaries of Pedro Quispe council and Pedro de la Carrera. The first, of Indian origin, left a protocol book that was private affairs of Indians who inhabited the parish of Our Lady of Purificación of Cuzco. Pedro de la Carrera held the same job at the town hall of Cuzco carrying especially the private affairs of the Spanish inhabitants, Creoles and mestizos Cuzco. These two books serve corpus protocol for this study. Based on this documentation it is done to approximate picture of linguistic variation in the city of Cuzco in the last twenty sixteenth century. Linguistic variation we find in the Spanish used by indigenous people with different backgrounds and contrast with Castilian Spanish, Creole and perhaps a mestizo from the same era and city. The documentary corpus employee is original and autograph, and consists of documents belonging to the same discursive tradition, these factors which, if properly harnessed, contribute to the fidelity of the sample.

Viceroy Francisco de Toledo (1569-81) both reviled and admired the Incas. Surprisingly, he identified exactly the same aspects of their rule to praise and to condemn. To supply a legal justification for the Spanish conquest of Tawantinsuyu, Toledo and his advisers set out to prove that the Incas met the definition of tyranny in Castilian law, as explained by Aristotle and codified in the Siete Partidas. Tyranny was defined by specific elements: state surveillance and control, a climate of fear, the destruction of civil society, social leveling, and a monopoly by the state over its subjects’ time, labor, and property. But even while condemning the Inca regime for these methods, Toledo came to believe that these methods had enabled the Incas to rule well and to create a prosperous society in the Andes. The viceroy self-consciously emulated the same aspects of Inca rule that he invoked to prove that they were tyrants. / El virrey Francisco de Toledo (1569-1581) denostaba y admiraba a los incas al mismo tiempo. Sorprendentemente, alababa y condenaba a la vez diversos aspectos que él identificó en el gobierno de aquellos. Para dar una justificación legal de la conquista española del Tawantinsuyu, Toledo y sus asesores se propusieron demostrar que las prácticas políticas de los incas encajaban con la definición de la tiranía en el derecho castellano, que se basaba en las ideas de Aristóteles y que estaba recogida en las Siete partidas. La tiranía fue definida por elementos específicos: un estado de vigilancia y control, un clima de miedo, la destrucción de la sociedad civil, la nivelación social y el monopolio del Estado sobre el tiempo, el trabajo y la propiedad de sus súbditos. Pero incluso mientras condenaba al Tawantinsuyu por dichas prácticas, Toledo llegó a creer que ellas habían permitido a los incas gobernar bien y crear una sociedad próspera en los Andes. El virrey, conscientemente, emuló los mismos aspectos del régimen del Tawantinsuyu que él invocaba para demostrar que los incas habían sido unos tiranos.

Using data from the years 1552-1585 in the catalogues of Passengers to America in the General Archive of the Indies in Seville, this article investigates how the metropolitan administration identified and treated Peruvian mestizos returning from Spain, and examines the attitude of the peninsular family toward those born overseas to Spanish fathers and to mothers who were frequently unknown. In other words, the present article seeks to determine what objectives Peruvian mestizos pursued during their stay in the Peninsula and what reception they experienced from the metropolitan administration and from their Spanish families. / A partir de información correspondiente al periodo 1552-1585 tomada de los catálogos de pasajeros a América del Archivo General de Indias, en Sevilla, el presente artículo estudia cómo identificaba y trataba la administración metropolitanaa los mestizos peruanos que regresaban de España, y examina cuál era la actitud de la familia peninsular respecto de aquellos nacidos en ultramar,de padres españoles y de madres muchas veces desconocidas. En otras palabras, el presente artículo busca determinar qué objetivos perseguían los mestizos peruanos con su estadía en la Península y cuál era la acogida que recibían de la administración metropolitana y de sus familias españolas.

In 1541 Doctor Juan Negrete arrived in Mexico, the first lay professor of theology, and who was also named the archdeacon of the new cathedral. Twelve years later he participated as the first rector in the inauguration of the Royal University of Mexico, and a few months before he died in 1555 he also taught theology there. Several documents relating to Negrete, many of them unpublished, reveal the internal difficulties which the first bishop and the cathedral chapter experienced as they attempted to lay the basis for the secular aspects of the church. Negrete, instead of being a factor of cohesion in the chapter, was the source ofdivisions and conflicts given his disorderly life style and propensity to speak ill of others and initiate rumors. He created many enemies and instigated proceedings which often led to prison. His case in particular reveals the ambivalent nature of many personalities who participated in the creation of Spanish institutions in the newly conquered lands. / En 1541 llegó a México el doctor Juan Negrete, el primer catedrático secular deTeología, quien tenía el nombramiento adicional de arcediano de la naciente iglesia catedral. Doce años después, participó en la inauguración de la Real Universidad de México en calidad de primer rector, y pocos meses antes de morir, en 1555, también enseñó Teología en dicha institución. Diversos documentos relacionados con Negrete, en su mayoría inéditos, nos revelan las dificultades internas que debieron sortear el primer obispo y cabildo eclesiástico de México para asentar la Iglesia secular. Negrete, antes que factor de cohesión en el cabildo,fue causa de divisiones y conflictos, debido a su disipado estilo de vida y, especialmente, a su carácter, inclinado a la maledicencia y a la murmuración, y fuente de enemistades, procesos y cárceles. Su caso muestra también la ambivalencia de no pocas personalidades que participaron en la creación de las instituciones peninsulares en los territorios de conquista.

Após a viagem inaugural de Vasco da Gama, os portugueses traçaram um projeto ambicioso de controle das rotas e dos entrepostos comerciais do oceano Índico, que previa a instalação de feitorias nas cidades africanas costeiras de Quiloa e Sofala. A importância dessa última residia na sua proximidade com os centros produtores de ouro do interior do continente, principalmente o reino do Monomotapa, identificado pelos contemporâneos como o mais rico e poderoso da região. Se no início de sua presença na costa índica os lusitanos aguardaram os mercadores africanos dentro da fortaleza, a partir da queda do volume nos negócios os comerciantes particulares e representantes da Coroa passaram a prospectar o sertão em busca das fontes de riqueza que escapavam da feitoria, desviadas pelas redes mercantis muçulmanas para a cidade de Angoche. Em duas fases distintas, o movimento português em direção ao sertão do continente africano se desenrolou ao longo de todo o século XVI e seus atores produziram grande volume de documentos sobre as diversas características das sociedades com que travaram contato. A partir do vasto conjunto documental, e partindo do pressuposto de que a aplicação de uma metodologia de leitura crítica das fontes nos permitiria acessar, ainda que não em sua totalidade, características das estruturas sociais, políticas e econômicas shona, o objetivo dessa pesquisa é investigar a história política do reino do Monomotapa ao longo do Quinhentos, tendo como ponto de partida a investigação dos interesses que levaram os mutapas a estabelecer relações amistosas com os lusitanos que penetraram em seu território. Ainda que o foco central não seja a presença dos portugueses em África, entendemos que a história do Monomotapa no século XVI somente pode ser compreendida a partir do contato, uma vez que o encontro dos projetos e interesses shona e português provocou o surgimento de novos contextos e arranjos significativos para as dinâmicas históricas dessa região. / After the inaugural trip of Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese have drawn an ambitious project for the control of routes and trading posts of the Indian Ocean, which included the installation of trading stations in the African coastal cities of Kilwa and Sofala. The importance of the latter lays in its proximity to the gold producers in the outback, especially in the Kingdom of the Monomotapa - identified by contemporaries as the richest and most powerful in the region. At the beginning of its presence on the coast, the Portuguese traders waited for African merchants inside the fortress. As the volume of business decreased, the private traders and agents of the Crown began to explore the wilderness due to the seeking of wealth sources that did not reach the feitoria of Sofala. By that time, Muslims had shifted commercial networks for the city of Angoche. In two different phases, the Portuguese movement towards the hinterland of the continent took place throughout the sixteenth century. This research relies on the vast amount of documents left behind by the Portuguese when they passed that encounter . It is based on the assumption that the use of a methodology of critical reading of the sources allows us to approach Shonas political, social and economic structures. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to investigate the political history of the kingdom of Monomotapa throughout the sixteenth century, starting with the research of the interests which led the Mutapas to establish friendly relations with the Lusitanians who invaded their territory. Even though the Portuguese presence in Africa is not our main focus, we understand that the history of Monomotapa in the sixteenth century can only be understood through the analysis of the contact of this people with the Portuguese. This is to say that the projects and interests of the Shona and the Portuguese led to the rise of new contexts and significant arrangements for the historical dynamics in this region.

Esta tese tem como objetivo apontar e comentar as estratégias de construção e de legitimação de um ethos de advogado da causa ueritatis nas polêmicas religiosas do século XVI. Trata-se aqui de defender uma posição num contexto em que só há um Deus e só há uma Verdade, e, portanto, somente uma interpretação é verdadeira. O autor cristão envolvido em polêmicas precisa, pois, provar que ele é o \"enviado\", o nuntius que proclama a mensagem com simplicidade, ao passo que seus oponentes são os \"falsos mestres\" que, para dissimular suas mentiras, ocultam-nas sob palavras artisticamente trabalhadas. Assim, não apenas a construção do ethos \"positivo\" de um está vinculada à desconstrução (ou destruição) do ethos do outro, mas ambas - construção e desconstrução - dão-se segundo o ideário da humilitas, a qual é, ao mesmo tempo, constitutiva da moral (ética) e da expressão discursiva (estética). / The objective of this doctoral dissertation is to identify and comment on the strategies of construction and legitimization of an ethos of an advocate in the causa ueritatis in the religious polemics of the sixteenth century. It is a way of defending a position within a context in which there is only one God and only one Truth, and, therefore, only one true interpretation. The Christian author involved in such polemic needs to prove that he is the \"emissary,\" the nuntius who proclaims the message with simplicity, whereas his opponents are the \"false masters\" who, in order to dissimulate their lies, hide them under artistically woven words. Thus, not only is the construction of the positive ethos linked to the deconstruction (or destruction) of the other\'s ethos; but both, construction and deconstruction, happen according to the concept of humilitas, which is, at the same time, constitutive of morals (ethics) and of discursive expression (esthetics).

The presented Master theses deals with the issues related to the existence and activities of the Non-Catholics and the Non-Christians in the 16th Century Italy. Using the comparative approach, it studies the spreading of the ideas of Reformation and their reception by the local population. It deals also with the social structure of the sympathizers of the Non-Catholical confessions. In the case of Non-Christians it deals mainly with the change of the attitude towards them in the selected time period. For the comparation was chosen the majority of important Italian States of the selected period - Tuscany, The Republic of Genoa, The Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of Sicily, The Duchy of Milan, The Duchy of Savoy, The Republic of Venice and the Papal state. On the bases of the chosen comparative approach and the study of relevant historical sources and specialised literature, this Master theses provides both the analysis of the common features of the activity of the Non-Catholics and the Non-Christians in the studied area, as the regional differences. Keywords: Heresy, Non-Catholics, Italy, 16th Century, Non-Christians

Over the twentieth century and into the present, theorists of secularization and political theology have explored ways that theological arguments have shaped the social, ethical, economic, and political imaginaries of the modern West. In many of these studies, the doctrine of providence has come under scrutiny alongside related theological debates over of the nature of divine sovereignty, glory, the will, and the significance of immanent life in relation to divine transcendence. While it is often taken for granted that the Calvinist branch of Protestant reform likewise had a decisive impact on the shape of the modern West, there has been no extended treatment of Calvin's writing on providence, or related doctrines, which engages these arguments about secularization.

The equity side of the court of exchequer "is by far the most obscure of all the English jurisdictions," declared Plucknett. The purpose of this essay is to shed some light upon this court and to explore its jurisdiction, to introduce its staff, to discover its procedures, to explain its equity records, and perhaps to render Plucknett's statement obsolete. Institutional history has an unfortunate tendency to dryness and remoteness, which coupled with the author's literary short-comings portends a tedious undertaking for the reader of this work. However, a reminder of the immense importance- of institutional history for both the lawyer and the historian will, hopefully, overcome this initial discouragement. Substantive law is inextricably intermingled with the procedures of the court; the practicalities of the prosecution of a lawsuit can never be neglected. Of initial and fundamental importance is that for which the petitioner prays. In practical terms this was a remedy for a grievance or a complaint; in larger terms and in the context of this study, this was the prayer for equitable relief. This study demonstrates that equity was bigger than the chancery and that others besides the lord high chancellor had a hand in its development . It is true that the court of chancery was the most important court of equity, but the existence of an alternative high court of equity in the exchequer had a significant effect upon the development of equity and upon the chancery itself.

Research on the origins of the violoncello reveals considerable dispute concerning the existence and identity of its ancestor, the bass violin. This study focuses on the classification of the sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century bass violin by means of the following criteria: construction, early history and development, role due the social status of builders and players, use within the violin band, performing positions, and defining terminology. Accounts of inventories, organological treatises, music theoretical writings, lists of households and royal courts, descriptions of feasts, reports of choreographies and iconographical examples confirm the bass violin's presence in the late sixteenth century and beyond. Three of the earliest unchanged extant organological examples embody, complement and corroborate the bass violin's identification, and conclude the essay.