1 / Sarah Elizabeth Galvez

<p>Adult skeletal muscle has the remarkable capacity of regenerating in response to stressors, such as overuse, injury, or myopathic conditions. A fundamental contributor to the regenerative process is satellite cells, which are the primary stem cells of skeletal muscle. Uncovering factors involved in satellite cell function will greatly improve their therapeutic potential, especially for patients suffering from myopathic diseases.</p> <p>The protein Xin was previously identified as being highly upregulated in damaged skeletal muscle and localized to the satellite cell population, however its purpose there has not been elucidated. Therefore the overall goal of this study was to determine the role of Xin during skeletal muscle regeneration and within its resident stem cell population. This was approached using Xin knockdown (Xin shRNA) and knockout (Xin-/- mice) models, whereby any deficits or changes in the regenerative process can be attributed to the lack/absence of Xin. The results of the following studies reveal that when Xin expression is reduced or absent, muscle regeneration is impaired, satellite cell activation is altered, and muscle fiber morphology moves towards a myopathic state.</p> <p>Furthermore, since Xin has been shown to be upregulated during regeneration, it was interesting to study the expression of Xin in human myopathic muscle which is in a constant state of regeneration. It was observed that Xin expression correlates with degree of damage in myopathic muscle, regardless of disease diagnosis. Therefore, these data have improved our understanding of muscle regeneration, satellite cell function, and suggest a clinical marker for defining muscle damage severity.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

This study investigated the effect of bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in a PEGylated fibrin gel (PEG) seeded into a decellularized extracellular matrix (ECM) on recovery of skeletal muscle following a volumetric muscle loss (VML) injury. Six to nine month old male Sprague-Dawley rats were used in this study. Approximately one-third of the skeletal muscle mass of the lateral gastrocnemius (LGAS) was removed from the LGAS, which was immediately replaced with an acellular ECM of the same dimensions. Seven days after injury, animals were injected with one of four solutions: saline (SAL), MSCs (MSC), PEGylated fibrin hydrogel (PEG), or MSCs in PEG (PEG+MSC). Maximal isometric tetanic tension (Po) of the LGAS was assessed fifty-six days after VML injury, followed by histological evaluation. VML injury resulted in a functional impairment of the LGAS capable of producing 76.1± 4.9% of the force generated in the non-injured contralateral LGAS. Tetanic tension of the PEG+MSC treated group was significantly higher compared to all other treatment groups (p < 0.05), although specific tension (N/cm2) in the PEG+MSC group (79.7±4.0%) was only significantly higher compared to SAL (58.2±3.0) and PEG (64.0±2.1%) treated groups (p < 0.05). However, LGAS mass was significantly higher in the PEG+MSC group compared to all other groups (p < 0.05). These findings suggest the combination of the PEG+MSC did not lead to a significant increase in muscle function compared to MSC treatment alone, and demonstrates the importance of MSCs in skeletal muscle regeneration in VML injury models. However, as evident by the significant increase in LGAS mass, PEG+MSC treatment may lead to histological differences not evaluated in this study. Gross morphology of the repaired gastrocnemius was indistinguishable from the contralateral control. / text

Le muscle strié squelettique possède de grandes capacités de régénération grâce à ses cellules souches, les cellules satellites. Après une lésion, le processus de régénération musculaire qui se met en place est finement régulé dans le temps et l’espace par le microenvironnement, constitué de cellules avoisinantes mais également par des éléments de la matrice extracellulaire (MEC). Cette dernière se compose de molécules structurales comme les collagènes et de composants possédant un rôle trophique comme les glycosaminoglycanes (GAGs). La MEC musculaire est peu étudiée à cause d’une organisation tridimensionnelle complexe rendant son exploration difficile. Lors d’une lésion avec perte de substance musculaire, la régénération est altérée, associée à une fibrose et une inflammation chronique. Ce type de lésion est fréquemment rencontré en traumatologie mais survient également chez le blessé de guerre. Malgré un traitement optimal, une invalidité fonctionnelle persiste chez ces patients. L’utilisation d’un biomatériau décellularisé, constitué de MEC pourrait fournir ce support physique et trophique faisant défaut dans ce type de lésion. Dans ce travail, nous avons entrepris l'établissement d'une MEC d’origine musculaire et nous avons établi un protocole de décellularisation permettant d’obtenir un biomatériau conservant l’architecture spécifique de la MEC musculaire avec une élimination de la majorité des antigènes cellulaires afin d'éviter une réponse immunitaire délétère après implantation. Néanmoins, le protocole retenu ne permet de conserver certaines molécules trophiques d’intérêt comme les GAGs. Les « ReGeneRaTing Agent®» (RGTA®) sont des mimétiques fonctionnels de ces GAGs, utilisés en clinique pour améliorer la cicatrisation cutanée et cornéenne. Ces mimétiques conservent une capacité de liaison aux facteurs de croissance avec une résistance aux dégradations enzymatiques. Nous avons évalué l’utilisation de ces molécules au cours de la réparation musculaire, dans un modèle in vivo chez le rongeur. Nous avons réalisé une analyse histologique précoce (8e jour de régénération) mettant en évidence une augmentation du nombre de noyaux par myofibre en faveur d’une augmentation de la fusion, validée également in vitro sur des progéniteurs musculaires. Nous avons également observé une augmentation du nombre de vaisseaux, suggérant une amélioration de l’angiogenèse. Le nombre de gouttelettes lipidiques, marqueur d’une mauvaise régénération, était en diminution. L’exploration histologique plus tardive (28e jour de régénération) n’a retrouvé que l’augmentation du nombre de vaisseaux en faveur d’un effet durable sur l’angiogenèse. Ces RGTA® peuvent être couplés aux biomatériaux et sont particulièrement résistants dans un environnement inflammatoire pouvant être rencontré dans les lésions avec perte de substance musculaire. Des chimiokines et des facteurs de croissance pourront également être ajoutés au biomatériau matriciel afin de favoriser la migration des différents progéniteurs nécessaires à une néoformation musculaire. L’efficacité thérapeutique de ces biomatériaux optimisés nécessitera d’être évaluée dans un modèle in vivo de perte de substance / Skeletal muscle exhibits high capacity for regeneration after an injury that relies on resident stem cells. Muscle regeneration is tightly regulated by both the immune response and other resident cells, as well as by cues from the local extracellular matrix (ECM), contributing to a coordinated repair process. Muscle ECM is a network of structural macromolecules with a large majority of collagens and trophic molecules such as glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). In the skeletal muscle tissue, ECM was overlooked due to its complex organization making investigations difficult. Muscle regenerative ability can be overtaken in large muscle wasting, such as in volumetric muscle loss (VML), leading to fibrosis formation and chronic inflammation. This type of injury predominantly occurs in traumatology and in war-wounded patients, with functional disability despite an optimal treatment. The use of biomaterials could provide the biochemical and physical cues that are missing in this pathologic repair. In this work we have focused on obtaining a biomaterial composed of skeletal muscle ECM. We have tested several decellularization protocols both to preserve the three-dimensional architecture of the muscle ECM and to completely remove cell components in order to avoid a deleterious immune response after implantation. However, the protocol did not allow the preservation of trophic molecules such as GAGs, in the scaffold.“ReGenerating Agents” (RGTA®) are functionally analogous of GAGs with a crucial property to resist enzymatic degradation. They function to restore a proper microenvironment for tissue healing with already a clinical application in skin and corneal repair. We have explored the effects of RGTA® in muscle regeneration using an in vivo model in mouse. At early time of regeneration (day 8), we performed histologic analysis. We showed that regenerating myofibers contained more nuclei in the treated animals, in favor of an increase of progenitor fusion, which has been validated in vitro in myogenic cultures. The number of capillaries was higher in favor of a better angiogenesis. Lipid droplets, a marker of impaired regeneration, were reduced by RGTA® administration. At later time of regeneration (day 28), capillary number was still improved in favor of a durable effect of RGTA® on angiogenesis. RGTA® could be incorporated into biomaterials and are particularly resistant in an inflammatory environment, such as that occurring after a VML injury. Chemokines and growth factors could also be added in ECM-based scaffolds to promote the migration of progenitors that are essential for myofiber neoformation. Therapeutic efficacy of these optimized biomaterials will require to be evaluated in an in vivo model of VML

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第24637号 / 工博第5143号 / 新制||工||1982(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科合成・生物化学専攻 / (主査)教授 森 泰生, 教授 浜地 格, 教授 跡見 晴幸 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DGAM

O objetivo deste trabalho foi contribuir para o melhor entendimento dos mecanismos intracelulares envolvidos na regeneração muscular esquelética, através do estudo da influência das proteínas de choque térmico (HSPs) e do mTORC1 (mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1) no processo regenerativo muscular. O tratamento com radicicol (indutor de HSPs) em músculos lesados induziu aumento da área de secção transversal das fibras musculares em 10 e 21 dias após lesão e aumento do número de células satélites e de fibras musculares em diferenciação em 1 e 10 dias após lesão, respectivamente, quando comparado aos seus respectivos controles apenas lesados. O tratamento com rapamicina (inibidor de mTORC1) em músculos lesados induziu uma diminuição maior da área de secção transversal das fibras musculares em 10 e 21 dias após lesão e menor síntese protéica muscular em 10 dias após lesão quando comparado aos músculos somente lesados. Nossos resultados sugerem que as HSPs e o mTORC1 são importantes para o processo de regeneração muscular esquelética. / The goal of this work was to contribute to a better understanding about the intracellular mechanisms involved in skeletal muscle regeneration by studying the influence of heat shock proteins (HSPs) and mTORC1 (mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1) in the muscle regeneration process. The treatment with radicicol (a HSP inductor) in injured muscles induced increase of myofiber cross section area at 10 and 21 days post lesion and increased number of satellite cells and differentiating myofibers at 1 and 10 days post lesion, respectively, when compared to their respective injured controls. The treatment with rapamycin (a mTORC1 inhibitor) in injured muscles induced a more accentuated decrease in myofiber cross section area at 10 and 21 days post lesion and decreased muscle protein synthesis at 10 days post lesion when compared to only-injured muscles. Our results suggest that HSPs and mTORC1 are important to the process of skeletal muscle regeneration.

No intuito de avaliar o papel do receptor b2-adrenérgico no processo de regeneração muscular, os músculos tibialis anterior de camundongos knockout para o adrenoceptor b2 (b2KO) foram criolesados e analisados após 1, 3, 10 e 21 dias. Análises de aspectos morfológicos e contráteis, atuação de macrófagos M1 e M2, conteúdo de AMPc e ativação de elementos da via de sinalização TGF-b/smad foram realizadas. Os músculos em regeneração dos animais b2KO apresentaram redução do calibre das fibras musculares, redução na função contrátil em 10 dias após criolesão, atenuado aumento do conteúdo de AMPc nos músculos em 10 dias após criolesão, aumento da inflamação e do número de macrófagos nos músculos em regeneração em 3 e 10 dias após lesão, predominância de macrófagos M1, diminuição da ativação de TbR-I e smad2/3 e da expressão de smad4 em 3 dias após lesão, e aumento na expressão de akirina1 em 10 dias após lesão. Nossos resultados sugerem que o adrenoceptor b2 contribui para a regulação das fases iniciais da regeneração muscular. / In this study, we investigated the role of the b2-adrenoceptor in skeletal muscle regeneration. Tibialis anterior muscles from b2-adrenoceptor knockout (b2KO) mice were cryolesioned and analysed after 1, 3, 10, and 21 days. Analysis of structural and contractile aspects, M1 and M2 macrophage profile, cAMP content, and activation of TGF-b/smad signalling elements. Regenerating muscles from b2KO mice showed diminished calibre of regenerating myofibres, decreased muscle contractile function at 10 days when compared with those from wild-type, attenuated augment in cAMP content in muscles at 10 days post-injury, increase in inflammatory process and in the number of macrophages at 3 and 10 days, prevalence of M1 macrophage phenotype, reduction in TbR-I and smad2/3 activation, and in the smad4 expression at 3 days, and an increase in akirin1 expression at 10 days in muscles from b2KO mice when compared to those from wild-type. Our data suggest that the b2-adrenoceptor contributes to the control of the initial stages of muscle regeneration.

Le muscle strié squelettique est un tissu richement vascularisé. Cependant, les vaisseaux ne sont pas seulement des pourvoyeurs d'oxygène et de nutriments, mais participent activement à l'homéostasie tissulaire en interagissant avec les cellules souches musculaires. La Dystrophie Musculaire de Duchenne (DMD) est une pathologie associée à un dommage musculaire, des cycles de nécrose/régénération, un remodelage tissulaire et une plasticité vasculaire. Nous avons en effet, démontré par des études in vivo un défaut d'organisation du réseau vasculaire en 3D grâce au croisement entre une souris mdx et une souris Flk1-GFP (modèle murin de la DMD fluorescente pour les cellules endothéliales), ainsi qu'une atteinte histologique du réseau vasculaire (analyse quantitative et morphométrique des vaisseaux) incluant un défaut de vascularisation des fibres musculaires. L'atteinte histologique est associée à un défaut de perfusion du muscle que nous avons démontré en RMN (résonnance magnétique nucléaire), une technique sophistiquée et non invasive nous permettant d’étudier à la fois la perfusion et le métabolisme énergétique. Dans le modèle du muscle strié squelettique, qui régénère complètement après une lésion, l'angiogenèse et la myogenèse sont concomitantes. Notre hypothèse générale est que le couplage entre myogenèse et angiogenèse est altéré dans les myopathies dégénératives mais leurs mécanismes cellulaires et moléculaires restent mal connus. Nos travaux ont mis en évidence l'existence d'un couplage cellulaire et moléculaire fonctionnel entre la myogenèse et l'angiogenèse en utilisant des modèles in vitro et in vivo dans lesquels les cellules endothéliales (ECs) et les cellules précurseurs myogéniques (MPCs) sont associées. Nos résultats montrent que MPCs et ECs s'attirent réciproquement, suggérant la sécrétion de facteurs chimiotactiques spécifiques. Les ECs stimulent fortement l'entrée des cellules souches du muscle dans le programme de différenciation myogénique (prélude indispensable à la formation des structures multinucléées et contractiles). Nous avons également démontré, grâce à une technique de coculture en 3 dimensions, que les MPCs présentent un potentiel pro-angiogénique important, permettant la formation de structures vasculaires différenciées. Ces résultats ont été validés in vivo (angiogenèse en plug sous-­‐cutanés) et démontrent ainsi que la myogenèse et l'angiogenèse sont des processus couplés au cours de la régénération musculaire. Nous avons identifié trois déterminants moléculaires mis en jeu, suite à l’analyse d’un transcriptome des cellules souches musculaires et des cellules endothéliales, isolées à partir du muscle à différents temps au cours de la régénération. Ces données indiquent que l'environnement vasculaire contrôle le destin des cellules souches musculaires, qui en retour, interagissent sur leur environnement proche. Par ces interactions, les cellules vasculaires jouent donc un rôle central dans le remodelage tissulaire après un phénomène destructif. Ce travail montre pour la première fois que l'organisation et la fonction des vaisseaux sont altérées au cours des pathologies musculaires dégénératives et l'importance des interactions entre cellules souches du parenchyme et cellules endothéliales des vaisseaux dans la régulation de l'homéostasie tissulaire, et ouvrent une réflexion sur la prise en compte du processus d'angiogenèse associé étroitement à la réparation tissulaire – ici la myogenèse – dans une perspective thérapeutiques. / Skeletal muscle is highly vascularized and has the outstanding capacity to regenerate ad integrum after an injury. Beyond oxygen and nutriment supply, new functions for vessels have been recently identified, through the interactions vessel cells establish with muscle stem cells. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy is characterized by the lack of dystrophin, a sarcolemma anchoring protein, and by cycles of necrosis/regeneration, tissue and vessel remodeling that lead to progressive loss of muscle force. In this severe context, our aim was to decipher alterations of the vascular network structural organization and better understand the functional repercussions on the muscle tissue. We performed a confrontation between morphological and functional approaches using a non-invasive protocol. Histology and morphometry were performed using Flk1GFP/+ crossed with mdx mice (model for the human DMD where all blood vessels express GFP). Multiparametric and functional nuclear magnetic resonance consisted in simultaneous acquisition of arterial spin labelling imaging of perfusion and 31P spectroscopy of phosphocreatine kinetic. We demonstrated for the first time that the vascular system displayed marked alterations in 12 month--‐old mdx mice, more specifically at the capillary scale. Histological results confirmed these observations showing strong perturbations of the microvascular network that are directly linked to the muscle lesions. In parallel, we analyzed the repercussions of these disruptions on skeletal muscle physiology. Our results demonstrated that after a hypoxic stress, blood perfusion was decreased in mdx mouse. During skeletal muscle regeneration, myogenic precursor cells (MPCs) interact with neighboring cells to expand and differentiate. Among them, endothelial cells (ECs) have to be considered. Their close proximity suggests that myogenesis and angiogenesis take place together during muscle regeneration. Our aim was to investigate the existence of such a coupling and to identify the underlying molecular mechanisms. We demonstrated a functional interplay between the two cell types as both cells attracted each other, suggesting the secretion of specific attractive factors. ECs strongly stimulated MPC differentiation and using 3D co-cultures, we revealed that MPCs promoted angiogenesis. These results were validated in vivo using matrigel plug assay. By analyzing transcriptomic from ECs and MPCs sorted at different time points during muscle regeneration, we evidenced and validated the role of the 3 novel molecules regulating angiogenesis/myogenesis coupling: Apelin, Oncostatin M and Periostin, that each plays specific roles during early and late phases of muscle regeneration. Thus, interactions between vessel cells and MPCs seem to play a central role in the tissue remodeling after an injury. Collectively our results point out, for the first time, strong perturbations of the vascular network with functional repercussions on muscle tissue perfusion in dystrophinopathic muscle. In light of our results evidencing the coupling between myogenesis and angiogenesis during skeletal muscle regeneration, due to the specific interactions between ECs and MPCS, it is likely that, coupling between myogenesis and angiogenesis could be affected in pathological context.

Considerando-se que o papel das proteínas de choque térmico (HSPs) na melhoria da resposta regenerativa da musculatura esquelética de camundongos idosos ainda não é bem conhecido, e que o tratamento com O-(3-piperidino-2-hydroxy-1-propyl) nicotinic amidoxime (BGP-15), um indutor de HSPs, atenua a fibrose muscular em animais com Distrofia de Duchenne, a hiperexpressão de HSPs no músculo esquelético através do tratamento com BGP-15 e do uso de camundongos transgênicos que hiperexpressam a proteína de choque térmico 70 kDa induzível (HSP70) poderia melhorar o processo regenerativo muscular por meio da atenuação da fibrose do tecido muscular em regeneração de animais idosos. Portanto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar a influência das HSPs na resposta regenerativa muscular em camundongos idosos através da análise dos efeitos do tratamento com o fármaco BGP-15 e da hiperexpressão da HSP70 induzida por transgenia em aspectos estruturais, celulares, moleculares e funcionais. Em 10 dias após a criolesão de músculos tibialis anterior (TA), o tratamento com BGP-15 (15 mg/kg) atenuou a sarcopenia e a redução do tamanho das fibras musculares em regeneração de camundongos idosos, e induziu a recuperação da densidade de área do tecido conjuntivo em músculos não lesados de camundongos idosos, e da expressão de FGF em músculos lesados de camundongos idosos. Além disso, o BGP-15 proporcionou atenuação da queda da força do músculo extensor digitorum longus em regeneração (EDL) após lesão em camundongos jovens. Além do efeito benéfico do BGP-15 em atenuar a sarcopenia, este fármaco (1&#956;M) também atenuou a perda de miotubos C2C12 expostos às citocinas inflamatórias interferon-&#947; e TNF-&#945; Houve prevenção do déficit na diferenciação inicial e tardia de mioblastos oriundos de animais idosos que hiperexpressam HSP70. Em paralelo, verificamos que o silenciamento de HSP70 em mioblastos C2C12 acarreta na redução da expressão do gene MyoD e do miR-326 no início do processo de diferenciação muscular. Portanto, nossos resultados demonstram que a hiperexpressão de HSPs, induzida por BGP-15, melhora a regeneração muscular em camundongos idosos, pois acelera a recuperação do tamanho da fibra muscular em regeneração. Experimentos in vitro sugerem que esse efeito é mediado pela atenuação do déficit na diferenciação de células precursoras miogênicas. Paralelamente, este trabalho demonstra que a HSP70 participa do início da diferenciação muscular por meio de mecanismo envolvendo MyoD e o miR-326. Além do efeito benéfico do indutor de HSPs, BGP-15, sobre a regeneração muscular de animais idosos, este atenuou a sarcopenia e a perda de miotubos expostos ao modelo de atrofia muscular in vitro induzido por interferon-&#947; e TNF-&#945;. Este último efeito é mediado pela redução na expressão de Atrogin-1. / Considering that the role of heat shock proteins (HSPs) on the skeletal muscle regenerative response of aged mice is still not well known, and that the treatment with O- (3-piperidino-2-hydroxy-1-propyl ) nicotinic amidoxime (BGP-15), an HSP inducer, attenuates muscle fibrosis in animals with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy; the overexpression of HSPs in skeletal muscle induced by BGP-15 treatment and the use of inducible 70 kDa heat shock protein (HSP70) overexpressing transgenic mice could improve the muscle regenerative process through attenuation of fibrosis of regenerating muscle tissue in old mice. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the influence of HSPs on muscle regenerative response in aged mice by analyzing the effects of BGP-15 treatment and HSP70 overexpression induced by transgenesis in structural, cellular, molecular and functional aspects of regenerating muscles from aged mice. At 10 days after cryolesion of the tibialis anterior (TA), BGP-15 treatment (15 mg / kg) attenuated sarcopenia, reduced the cross sectional area of regenerating myofiber from aged mice and recovered the connective tissue density and the expression of FGF in injured muscles from aged mice. Moreover, BGP-15 attenuated the force decrease in extensor digitorum longus (EDL) after injury in young mice. In addition to the beneficial effect of BGP-15 on attenuation of sarcopenia, this drug (1&#956;M) also attenuated the loss of C2C12 myotubes exposed to the inflammatory cytokines interferon-&#947; and TNF-&#945;. There was a prevention of the deficit in the initial and late differentiation of myoblasts from aged animals that overexpress HSP70. In parallel, we observed that the silencing of HSP70 in C2C12 myoblasts reduced the gene expression of MyoD and miR-326 at the beginning of the muscle differentiation process. Therefore, our results suggest that the overexpression of HSPs improves muscle regeneration in aged mice, since it accelerates the size recovery of regenerating myofibers. This effect is mediated by the attenuation of the deficit in the differentiation of myogenic precursor cells. In parallel, we demonstrated that HSP70 participates in the beginning of muscle differentiation probably through a mechanism mediated by MyoD and miR-326. In addition to the beneficial effect of the HSP inducer BGP-15 on muscle regeneration of aged animals, it attenuated sarcopenia and loss of myotubes exposed to interferon-&#947; and TNF-&#945;. This latter effect is mediated by the reduction of Atrogin-1 expression.

No intuito de avaliar o papel do receptor b2-adrenérgico no processo de regeneração muscular, os músculos tibialis anterior de camundongos knockout para o adrenoceptor b2 (b2KO) foram criolesados e analisados após 1, 3, 10 e 21 dias. Análises de aspectos morfológicos e contráteis, atuação de macrófagos M1 e M2, conteúdo de AMPc e ativação de elementos da via de sinalização TGF-b/smad foram realizadas. Os músculos em regeneração dos animais b2KO apresentaram redução do calibre das fibras musculares, redução na função contrátil em 10 dias após criolesão, atenuado aumento do conteúdo de AMPc nos músculos em 10 dias após criolesão, aumento da inflamação e do número de macrófagos nos músculos em regeneração em 3 e 10 dias após lesão, predominância de macrófagos M1, diminuição da ativação de TbR-I e smad2/3 e da expressão de smad4 em 3 dias após lesão, e aumento na expressão de akirina1 em 10 dias após lesão. Nossos resultados sugerem que o adrenoceptor b2 contribui para a regulação das fases iniciais da regeneração muscular. / In this study, we investigated the role of the b2-adrenoceptor in skeletal muscle regeneration. Tibialis anterior muscles from b2-adrenoceptor knockout (b2KO) mice were cryolesioned and analysed after 1, 3, 10, and 21 days. Analysis of structural and contractile aspects, M1 and M2 macrophage profile, cAMP content, and activation of TGF-b/smad signalling elements. Regenerating muscles from b2KO mice showed diminished calibre of regenerating myofibres, decreased muscle contractile function at 10 days when compared with those from wild-type, attenuated augment in cAMP content in muscles at 10 days post-injury, increase in inflammatory process and in the number of macrophages at 3 and 10 days, prevalence of M1 macrophage phenotype, reduction in TbR-I and smad2/3 activation, and in the smad4 expression at 3 days, and an increase in akirin1 expression at 10 days in muscles from b2KO mice when compared to those from wild-type. Our data suggest that the b2-adrenoceptor contributes to the control of the initial stages of muscle regeneration.